Aloka History - Pg 2
News Ticker
H2.01
The
pristine
glory of Dighavapi
Walter Rupesinghe
Some
thirteen miles east of Ampara is
the ancient Buddhist shrine of Dighavapi hallowed by the visit of Lord
Buddha.
According
to the University history
of Ceylon in the legendary accounts of the landing of Vijaya and his
followers it has been recorded that the earliest arrivals founded
settlements in places where water was available. One such settlement
was at Dighavapi in the Gal Oya valley.
The
Mahawamsa states that in the 3rd
Century B.C., Uparaja supervised the construction of a wewa and that
subsequently a prince holding the office of Uparaja resided at
Dighavapi to superintend the cultivation and harvesting of crops in the
eastern district. Thus since the days of Vijaya irrigation and food
production were activities over which important members of the royal
family exercised direct supervision.
The
visit of Buddha
According
to the account given in the
Mahawamsa, when the Blessed one paid his third visit to Sri Lanka (the
visit to Kelaniya) he had gone to Samanakuta (Sri Pada) and after he
had spent the day as it pleased him at the foot of the mountain with
the brotherhood he set forth for Dighavapi. When he had arrived there,
he had seated himself with the brotherhood at the place where the
Cetiya (thereafter stood) and given himself up to meditation to
consecrate the spot (chapter one). Since the visit of the Buddha
several Buddhist communities had lived in the area and Dighavapi had
become an important place of pilgrimage and worship.
Dighavapi
as a strategic staging
post
In
later years, Dighavapi, which is 9
yojanas or 81 miles from Mahagama, the capital of Ruhuna, was made an
important staging post for Dutugemunu’s armies proceeding northwards to
attack the fortress of Vijitapura on their way to Anuradhapura. The
following passage from the University history of Ceylon makes very
interesting reading:
"Dutthagamani
anticipated the
greatest military genius of modern Europe by acting on the principle
that an army marches on its belly for his first act after gaining
control of affairs in his own principality was to entrust to his
brother (prince Saddhatissa) an intensive campaign of food production
and to store provisions at Dighavapi, a base from which his advancing
forces could be supplied with ease. The idelogical factor was duly
taken into account. It was instilled into the minds of the soldiers
that they were risking their lives and fortunes, not in their self
interest, not for the aggrandisement of their king not even for their
wives and children but solely for the glorification of the faith so
dear to them for Dutthagamani and his advisers knew that men would give
up their lives for a noble cause more readily than for personal gain".
We can
well imagine what a hive of
activity Dighavapi must have been in those memorable days with the
ploughman giving court orders as he steered the plough through the
fertile fields, comely maidens filling the air with their harvest
songs, company commenders shouting orders to the troops being trained
by them and everyone of them congregating in the gathering dusk on this
consecrated ground to join the chaplains accompanying the armies to pay
homage to the Blessed one. We can almost hear the haunting melody of
the worshippers as they chant "sadhu, sadhu" expressing their gratitude
for the blessings of another day now drawing to a close.
Little
wonder then that Prince
Saddhatissa who loved this place very dearly did so much to develop
Dighavapi when he ascended the throne.
Building
of the Dighavapi Cetiya
On the
death of his brother, King
Dutugemunu the mantle of Kingship fell on prince Saddhatissa. The new
king ruled for eighteen years. He was a deeply religious king and a
greater builder. Apart from completing all the construction work that
had been undertaken by his late brother he built vihares all the way
from Anuradhapura to Dighavapi at intervals of around ten miles.
He
founded the Dighavapi vihara
together with the Cetiya. For this Cetiya he had a covering of network
made set with gems, and in every mesh thereof was hung a splendid
flower of gold large as a wagon wheel. In honour of the eighty four
thousand sections of the dhamma he also commanded eighty four thousand
offerings (Mahawamsa Chap. xxxiii)
He
also developed the environs of
Dighavapi by constructing shrine rooms, dharmasalawas, monasteries,
rest rooms, hospitals and all the attendant facilities which make up a
great religious complex. By doing all this he enhanced the glory of
Dighavapi which had found favour with the Enlightened One and the fame
of Dighavapi spread far and wide.
Tragically
with the passage of time
Dighavapi suffered the fate of several other sacred shrines and went
into decay. One is almost tempted to say that while other Buddhist
shrines were kept alive in the memory of the people even in their
ruined state Dighavapi was almost forgotten.
Restoration
work
In
recent years with the limited
funds available the Archaeological Department made some attempt to
undertake the restoration of this shrine but progress was very very
slow. The department has located 35 archaeological sites in the
Dighavapi complex. The archaeological area is a mere 42 square
kilometres in extent. The area declared under the Archaeological
department is only four hundred yards in radius of each site leaving
the other areas unprotected under the Antiquities Ordinance No. 9 of
1940. As a result of this there has been a great deal of illegal
excavations, sand mining and enroachments in the open areas.
In a
draft concept plan prepared by
the Urban Development Authority a few years ago for the development of
the Addalaichenai Divisional Secretary’s Division within which
Dighavapi is situated a proposal was made for the declaration of the
Dighavapi archaeological area under the UDA Act No. 41 of 1978 which
would give the UDA power to control these unauthorised activities. At a
conference held on 11th January 2000 presided over by the then Minister
of Religious and Cultural Affairs it was decided that the Dighavapi
archaelogical area will be constituted as a Special Development Area in
consultation with the Archaelogical Department, all infrastructure
agencies, the Local Authority, the Town and Country Planning Dept. and
the UDA. Two high powered Advisory Committees were appointed to
implement this programme. Not much progress has been made. It would
appear that powerful forces have intervened to thwart the development
of Dighavapi.
There
are several ancient
inscriptions in the area. In 1986 a gold leaf inscription 14 cms in
length and 1.5 cms in width had been unearthed. The inscription had
been deposited inside a reliquary made of thick gold sheets. The text
of the inscription was as follows:
"Hail.
The stupa (reliquary) of King
Mahitisa (Kannittha Tissa) son of King Naka".
King
Kannittha Tissa reigned from 164
— 192 AD.
The
current status of Dighavapi is a
great tragedy not only for the Buddhists but for all Sri Lankans. It is
sincerely hoped that at least this Government will take positive and
meaningful steps to restore Dighavapi to its pristine glory. If this is
not done, I dread to think of what might happen when the proposed
Interim Council takes charge of the administration of the northern and
eastern provinces.
In
recent months the electronic media
has done much to highlight our ancient shrines in their Poya Day
programmes. I would appeal to them to include Dighavapi hallowed by the
visit of the Buddhist in one of the Poya Day programmes to provide more
information to the Buddhists on one of the very important
sacred places in our country.
14 09 2002 -
The Island
H2.02
Arahat
Mahinda's
gift to
Sri Lanka
Pioneer educationist Marie
Musaeus
Higgins wrote
this account of the significance of Poson poya
The
very important event which occurred on the Full
Moon Day of Poson Maase (June) is the coming of the Thera Mahinda to
Lanka. The Thera Mahinda was the son of the great Buddhist King Asoka
(Dhammasoka) of Maghada in Jambudwipa (India).
King
Asoka who was an ally and friend of the King of Lanka,
Devanam-piyatissa, wished that he should become a Buddhist as
himself. So Asoka asked his son Mahinda, who was a great Buddhist
Arahat, to go to Lanka and preach the Dhamma to King Tissa and his
people. Asoka spoke to Mahinda and his Theras thus: "Ye shall found
in the lovely Island of Lanka the wonderful Religion of the Conqueror
(Lord Buddha)".
Mahinda
was to take with him the Theras Itthiya, Uttiya, Sambala
and Baddasale. Mahinda had been for twelve years a monk at the time
when King Asoka commanded him to go to Lanka.
Mahinda
decided to visit his relatives first, before leaving India
for Lanka, as he was sure that once there he would remain in Lanka
till the end of his incarnation. So Mahinda preached to his relatives
in India for six months and he visited his Mother Asandimitra and his
Sister Sanghamitta (who was a nun).
He
took besides the four Theras (a Buddhist monk who possesses the
Iddhis), Sanghamitta's son the Samanera (a Buddhist monk who has not
been fully ordained - a Novice), Sumana (mighty in the six
supernormal powers) and the lay disciple Bhalluka with him and on the
Full Moon Day of Poson Maase they rose into the air and alighted on
the Mihintale Mountain in Lanka (about seven miles distant from
Anuradhapura, the capital of Lanka). Here they waited for King Tissa
who was just then on a hunting expedition and quite near. King Tissa
saw a deer grazing at the foot of the Mihintale Mountain.
He
sounded his bow-string, in order not to attack the deer when it
was feeding, and when the deer took flight, the King chased it up the
Mountain, and it ran to the place where Mahinda and His Theras were
standing. It is said that this deer was really not a deer, but the
Devaputra (the Deva-guardian of the mountain) of the mountain who had
taken the shape of a spotted deer in order to guide King Tissa to the
mountain to the Thera Mahinda.
When
the Deva had accomplished this task, he, in the shape of the
deer, disappeared and King Tissa saw to his astonishment the
yellow-robed Mahinda standing there in the place of the spotted deer
(Mahinda's six companions were not visible at the time, so as not to
frighten the King).
Thera
Mahinda called out to the King, after the latter had
searched in vain for the deer: "Come here Tissa". More astonished
than before was the King that the yellow-robed monk, whom he had
never seen before, should know his name, and he thought at first that
the yellow-robed monk must be a Yakka (a half demon who could change
his shape whenever he liked). At that time Yakkas and Nagas (also
half demons) are said to have lived in Lanka) in disguise. But he
approached Mahinda and then the latter commenced a conversation with
him which convinced him that this yellow-robed monk was a very
learned man.
And
the King's wise answers showed the Thera Mahinda that the King
was ready to understand the new teachings which he had brought to
him. King Tissa put his bow and arrow down, never to take them again
for hunting and Mahinda said: "Out of compassion for you and your
people we have come here." King Tissa then inquired whether there
were more yellow-robed monks in Jambudwipa.
Mahinda
showing now his six companions, said that the sky of
Jambudwipa was glittering with yellow robes.
Mahinda
now preached to King Tissa and his followers, who had come
up the mountain by this time, his first sermon on "Conformity in
Religion" and the king was so much impressed with the words of the
wise Mahinda, that he invited the great Thera and his companions to
his capital Anura-dhapura, where Mahinda began at once to teach the
Dhamma.
Soon
the whole Island of Lanka became Buddhistic, so convincing
was the teaching of the first Missionary in Lanka.
King
Tissa had the Island consecrated to Buddhism by Thera Mahinda
and Buddhism became the religion of all Sinhalese over the whole
Island (King Tissa and his subjects were Hindus by religion).
During
his whole lifetime the Venerable Mahinda remained in Lanka,
preaching and ordaining Sinhalese monks, and when he had completed
his mission he passed into Pari-Nirvana. At the place where Mahinda
and Devanampiyatissa first met, the successor of King Tissa, King
Uttiya built the Ambastale Dagoba which stands yet on Mihintale
Mountain and tell us about the great Thera Mahinda.
Even
at the present day after two thousand years on the Full Moon
Day of Poson maase, the event of Mahinda's "Coming to Lanka" and
introducing Buddhism, is always spoken of because he was the first
Buddhist Missionary and if it had not been for him the Sinhalese
would never have known Buddhism.
Therefore
let us think with love and gratitude of the Thera
Mahinda, the son of the great King Asoka of India.
27 07 2001 - Sunday Times
H2.03
Buddha’s
Visits to
Sri
Lanka
D. Amarasiri
Weeraratne
For
over two thousand years we
Sinhalese have been brought in a tradition which says that the Buddha
visited this island on three occasions during his life-time. Scholars
and historians like Sir D.B. Jayatillaka in the 1921 October issue
of "The Buddhist", and Dr. G.P. Malalasekera in his "Pali Literature
of Ceylon", his PhD thesis, Dr. G.C. Mendis the first Ceylonese to
undertake a scientifically minded history of our country, as well as
Dr. S. Paranavithana, the doyen of Archeology in our days have all
held that the legends of the visits is not historically true. Many
Buddhists found it difficult to accept a verdict against a tradition
accepted without hesitation for such a long period in our literature,
poetry and entrenched in the religious ceremonies of the Durutu Full
Moon Day, as well as the pilgrimages to Kelaniya and Sri Pada.
Therefore to discredit this belief would go against the grain of
Sinhalese Buddhism, and all its claims to be the chosen people of the
Buddha, as stout defenders of the faith.
Many
Buddhists who accept the Buddha’s
visits are intelligent men. They are aware of the Buddha’s
exhortations in the Kalama Sutra against beliefs that are not
reasonable, and not founded on reliable sources. They also must have
some reasons which at least to them appear to be tenable and
sound.
Beliefs
of such visits of the Buddha to this
country are not peculiar to Sri Lanka. According to Sarvastivadin
scriptures the Buddha had visited Kashmir. This too like the visits
to Lanka are not mentioned in the Pali Canon. According to Burmese
Buddhist works The Buddha had visited Burma. English Christians once
believed that Jesus Christ had visited England. This belief had died
out with the expansion of education and improvement in peoples
standard of knowledge.
However
this belief is said to prevail among
a minor Christian sect. Similarly there are other Christian beliefs
that are not supported by historical evidence. But the faithful
orthodox believers do not abandon them. When these beliefs are
discredited or shown to be historically untenable, they rush to a
controversy to defend their beliefs.
Thus
we see that religious beliefs are not
necessarily based on what is historically verifiable. The historian
ask the question "Did this actually happen" and examines the
evidence. He eliminates myth and legend which are not verifiable from
reliable sources. That is why the leading Buddhist intellectuals of
their day like sir D.B. Jayetillaka, Dr. Malalasekera, Dr.
Paranavithana and objective authorities on the ancient history of Sri
Lanka were not able to endorse this belief. With the rank and file of
the followers of a religious enthusiasm and national sentiment
override the dictates of reason and impede their impartial judgement.
For instance, the orthodox Buddhist believes that the Buddha had
supranormal powers. He could travel by air: He could subdue non human
beings like Yakshas and Nagas.
Therefore,
holding such beliefs it would not
be unreasonable if they think that the Buddha could have visited Sri
Lanka and had performed all the miraculous feats attributed to him in
the Mahavamsa legend.
It is
well known that during the time of
King Valagamba the Abhayagiri Vihara became the rival of the
Mahavihara &emdash; the headquarters if Theravada Buddhism, after
its
decline in India. The Abhayagiri drifted further and further away
towards Mahayana and finally became the headquarters of Mahayanism in
Sri Lanka. The Mahayanists had made many innovations and captured the
popular mind. They resorted to the use of images for worship,
relic-worship, talismans and charms. They resorted to protective
pirith chantings with concocted Sutras not found in the Tripitaka.
They had also cooked up a Sutra called Lankavatara according to which
the Buddha had visited Lanka at the invitation of King Ravana and
preached this discourse here.
This
had caught the popular mind along with
other apostasies of the Mahayanists. Nowhere in the Pali Canon do we
find reference to a visit of the Buddha to Lanka or preaching any
sermon here.
However
not to be outdone by the Mahayanists
in popularity, the Theravada Elders at the Mahavihara innovated the
legend that the Buddha visited Lanka not once but three times. And
details of the Buddha’s visit later became incorporated as history
when the Mahavihara Elder Mahanama compiled his Mahavamsa. He took
the legend from the earlier record called Dipawamsa. After that
commentarial works to the Tripitaka, and literary works by Sinhalese
authors all took these visits as facts and recorded them. Thus our
literature, songs, poetry, and ceremonies connected with the Kelaniya
temple and the Sri Pada shrine came to uphold the Buddha’s fictitious
visits as sacred facts.
Tankavatara
Sutra
In
this connection, it should be remembered
that the Dipawamsa and Mahavamsa - the sources from which we get this
legend were compiled about 500 years after the Buddha in Sri Lanka.
So the authors of these books were merely drawing on legends accepted
and passed over to them by their ancestors. They could not have
checked on the facts and verify them, as there were no literary
sources or even reference to these visits in the life of the Buddha
and his ministry as given in the Pali Canon. However, they had the
Sutra called Saddharma-Lankavatara (arrival of the good Doctrine in
Lanka) cooked up by the Mahayanists among their many apocryphal
scriptures.
It
teaches that the Buddha visited Sri Lanka
at the invitation of (the mythical king) Ravana. Ravana is the
villain of the Ramayana who abducted Princess Sita to Sri Lanka.
There is absolutely no evidence that prior to the arrival of the
Sinhalese here there were civilised people with cities, kings, and
the use of metals and iron. All archeological findings indicate that
the people who lived here prior to the arrival of the Sinhala Aryans
from North India were men in the tribal stage using only stone
implements. They were hunters and did not know the arts, crafts,
writing, and agriculture. Moreover the mythical Ravana lived some
1,000 years before the Buddha. Therefore the Lankavatara Sutra of the
Mahayanists is pure fiction with regard to its historical setting.
The compulsory vegetarianism it teaches is an attempt to make an
option given by the Buddha a compulsory practice.
Sinhalese
Buddhism
Sinhalese
Buddhism is not pure Theravada
Buddhism taught in the Canonical texts. It is an admixture of the
original teachings of the Buddha, with Mahayanist beliefs, and
practices and elements taken from Popular Hinduism, e.g. worship of
Hindu gods, observing caste in the Sangha, and debarring women from
holy orders as Bhikkhunis. Thus it is not at all surprising that
among the numerous adoptions from Mahayana popular beliefs and
practices. The idea that the Buddha visited Lanka was freely and
enthusiastically taken over by the early Sinhalese Buddhists.
18 01 2000 - The Island
H2.04
Unduvap
Pasalosvaka
Poya
Arahat
Therini Sanghamitta
arrived in Sri Lanka bringing the sacred bo-sapling
Danister I.
Fernando
About
2308 years ago, the magnificent full
moon of the month of 'Unduvap' would have been fortunate in being
able to witness certain allied events between India and Sri Lanka,
pertaining to the propagation of the Teachings of the Buddha.
Namely:
1. The Arrival of Arahat Theri
Sanghamitta in Sri Lanka from India.
2. The
bringing of the southern branch
(dakkhina shakha) of the Sri Maha Bodhi from India to be planted in
Anuradhapura, and
3. The
establishing of the Bhikkhuni Order
in this isle.
It
becomes clear, therefore, that all these
three events are connected to one another and that the last two
depend on the first - Theri Sanghamitta's arrival here. A resurgence
of Buddhism in India under the Emperor Dhammasoka and the friendship
between the Emperor and King Devanampiya Tissa of Sri Lanka, at that
time, became the source for that above events to follow. Let us now
reflect in retrospect.
We are
aware of the fact that the mighty
Emperor of India, Asoka, having given up his vast aggressive policy,
turned ever to a policy of righteousness (Dhamma Vijaya) influenced
by the lofty teachings of Shakyamuni the Buddha and directed a
programme of astounding activities pertaining to Buddhism and for its
propagation. His devotion to the religion was so strong, that he even
permitted his dear son and daughter to be ordained at the tender ages
of twenty and eighteen respectively. Included in his programme was
the holding of the Third Great council (Dhammasangayana) as a result
of which the dispath of missions abroad carrying the Buddha-Word was
put into operation. The authenticity of these missions has been
clearly proved particularly by several archaeological discoveries
made at Sanchi and elsewhere.
It is
interesting to note that Sri Lanka
would have been of special significance to the Emperor that he in
consultation with Venerable Moggaliputta Tissa, selected his own Son
Mahinda Mahathera to lead the commission to Sri Lanka, with a retinue
of five other monks, Ittiya, Uttiya, Sambala, Bhaddasala and novice
Sumana and an Upasaka, Bhanduka.
Nevertheless,
Mahinda Mahathera did not
expedite his mission. Instead he came to Vedisa his mother's native
place and made a careful study of the situation in Sri Lanka, whether
the time was really opportune for the proposed mission. Mutasiva the
then King of Sri Lanka (367-307 B.C), after sixty years of being a
king, had been very old, and as such Mahinda Thera decided to avoid
that period to come here. It was during the reign of King Devanampiya
Tissa (307-266 B.C) that Mahinda Mahathera and the party left India
for Sri Lanka. This shows clearly how methodical and wise Mahinda
Thera would have been in proceeding with his responsibilities for a
successful mission.
Mahinda
Mahathera did not confine himself to
preaching the Dhamma only. He gave much importance to the practical
aspects as well, by ordaining Upasaka Bhanduka on the second day
itself after the arrival. Other ordinations followed and the
establishment of "Buddha Sasana" in Sri Lanka became a sound reality.
The truth of the story of Mahinda mission is confirmed by a fresco at
Ajantha in India. 'Samantapasadika', the Vinaya commentary and the
chronicles describe in detail that with the birth of the community of
monks in Sri Lanka, there arose a deep enthusiasm on the part of the
womenfolk to enter the Bhikkuni order. In this respect it was queen
Anuala, wife of a sub-king, Mahanaga and her five-hundred
ladies-in-waiting who were serious about this appeal. They had listen
to Mahinda Mahathera's inspiring discourses and had even gaine mental
attainments. But according to 'Vinaya' rules Arahat Mahinda was not
in a position to ordain women. He suggested the alternative of
inviting his sister Bhikkhuni Sangamitta to Sri Lanka and thereby to
establish the Bhikkuni order in Sri Lanka.
Of
course, King Devanmpiya Tissa became very
happy at this suggestion that he promptly made arrangements to send a
group of messengers led by one of his faithful ministers, Arittha, to
India, taking the joint invitation from himself and from Mahinda
Thera to Emperor Asoka.
Emperor
Asoka, naturally, would not have
liked the suggestion to part with his daughter also, when his son had
already gone; but after considering the situation well, he finally
would have given his consent. As requested by Maha Mahinda Thera,
arrangements also were made to take with her a sapling of the Sri
Maha Bodhi under the shelter of which the Gautama Bodhisatta attained
Enlightenment.
According
to our chronicles the severing of
the southern branch from the main Bodhi Tree provides a plethora of
interesting stories which are mostly miraculous. It is said that the
required branch had got separated on its own miraculously since it
was considered highly sinful to cut a Bo-tree with an instrument.
The
Bo-sapling, after it was separated from
the main tree, was planted in a golden bowl with due respect and was
made ready to be taken to Sri Lanka by Arahat Theri Sanghamitta,
accompanied by others including eleven Arahat Bhikkunis.
Historical
Sources say that the scene of her
departure to Lanka leaving India and her great father, for good, was
a solemn ceremony. The party left the country from the port known as
"Tamara-lipti" (modern Tamluk). At that touching moment Asoka had
been at the port personally, to see them off. As the royal vessel
departed and gradually sailed away, Asoka, with feelings of deep
emotion had stood gazing till the vessel faded away not to be seen!
After
about seven days the vessel arrived at
the Jambukola port in Northern Lanka. King Devanampiya Tissa received
Arahat Therini Sanghamitta and party with the sacred Bo-sapling with
great respect and honour. From there it was taken to Anuradhapura in
'perahera'.
There
it was planted at a well attended
lofty ceremony in the Maha Megha Garden. The Sri Maha Bodhi still
stands magnificently receiving the veneration of million of devotees
both local and foreign. It proudly bears the distinction of being the
oldest tree on record of the whole world.
H.G.
Wells, in his book, "The outline of
History" says, "in Ceylon there grows to this day, a tree, the oldest
historical tree in the world, which we know certainly to have been
planted as a cutting from the Bo Tree in the year 245 B.C. From that
time to this it has been carefully tended and watered. It helps us to
realize the shortness of all human history to see so many generations
spanned by the endurance of one single tree."
We
have seen already that the main purpose
of Theri Sanghamitta's arrival in Sri Lanka was to ordain Lanka
lady-devotees. When the ceremonies connected with the planting of the
Bodhi Sapling were all over Queen Anula and her ladies were duly
ordaine and the Bhikkuni Order set up under the able guidance of
Arahat Theri Sanghamitta.
Arahat
Mahamahinda would certainly have
given her necessary advice on this occasion. The Bhikkhuni Order thus
established flourished in pristine purity.
All
women irrespective of their standing in
society, from all walks of life, who were desirous of entering the
Order, received ordination under Arahat Sanghamitta, who did all in
her power to raise Womankind from lower to higher levels of life -
moral, intellectual and spiritual.
Arahat
Therini Sanghamitta did a lot for the
'Buddha Sasana' in Sri Lanka. As all "Sankhara" are, she passed away
at the age of 79, while she was living at the peaceful nunnery,
"Hatthalaka". Her funeral was performed by the then King Uttiya with
honour and extreme solemnity, in the vicinity of the Sri Maha Bodhi,
Anuradhapura. When one sees the Sacred Bodhi, one also sees Theri
Sanghamitta!
10 12 2000 - Sunday Observer
H2.05
Sri
Maha Bodhi - a
living link with the past
Shortly
after
planting, eight shoots sprang up on the Sri Maha Bodhi. They were
planted on the king’s orders at important shrines and
settlements.
Derrick
Schokman
The
introduction of the Sri Maha Bodhi, or
Sacred Bo Tree, to Sri Lanka is commemorated by Buddhists on Unduwap
Poya or the full moon day of December.
Unduwap
Poya is more popularly known as Sri
Sangamitta Day, because it was the missionary nun Sangamitta who
brought the Sacred Bodhi with her a branch of the original Ficus
Religiosa under which the Buddha was meditating in Buddha-Gaya,
India, when he gained enlightenment.
Sangamitta
was the sister of the Apostle
Mahinda, who was already in Sri Lanka. His missionary work during the
reign of King Devanampiyatissa in the 3rd century BC had been
singularly successful.
Many
men and women wanted to be ordained to
the priesthood as monks and nuns. But the rules of the priesthood
forbade Mahinda from ordaining women. Mahinda accordingly
requested the King to ask Emperor Asoka of India to send Sangamitta
for this purpose.
At the
same time she could bring with her a
branch of the tree under which the Buddha meditated, to be planted in
Sri Lanka as an object of veneration that would keep devotees in mind
of his teachings.
Mission
The
King commissioned his nephew Prince
Arittha to intercede on his behalf with Emperor Asoka. Arittha’s
mission was successful. He returned along with Sangamitta and a
chapter of nuns and the sacred Bodhi in a golden pot.
The
King himself met them when they landed
near Kankesanturai in the present Jaffna Peninsula and in a gesture
of proud humility he took upon himself the duty of acting as a guard
to the Sacred Bhodhi, which was placed in an ornamented temporary
residence on the shore.
Later
this place was named Tissamaluwa
(Tisamalai in Tamil) and the King had the Tissamaha Vihara
constructed there in memory of the landing of the Sri Maha
Bodhi.
The
sacred sapling was planted in the royal
garden in Anuradhapura, where it still stands today, propped on
platform upon platform, enclosed by white-washed walls and surrounded
by altars laden with perfumed flowers &emdash; the oldest
historical
tree in the world.
Living
In old
Anuradhapura, now declared a sacred
city, the once ostentatious buildings are no more today than an
inanimate patchwork of the stonemason’s and craftsman’s art. The only
living thing is the Sacred Bodhi.
It is
fitting that the Sacred Bodhi, once
part of the tree at Buddha-Gaya, continues to grow in Sri Lanka where
the teachings of the Buddha, almost forgotten in India, continue to
flourish.
The
leaves of this unique tree were
described by Robert Knox, an English captive in the Kandyan Kingdom
during the 17th century, ‘as shaking in awe at what they saw in
Buddha-Gaya.’
Shortly
after planting, eight shoots sprang
up on the Sri Maha Bodhi. They were planted on the king’s orders at
important shrines and settlements.
Of
these eight ‘astapala bodhi’ only three
are said to be still living at Mihintale, Isurumuniya and
Kataragama.
Even
after Anuradhapura was given up as the
capital city and the jungle tide began to invade the place, the Sri
Maha Bodhi was protected by villagers. They lit bonfires around it at
night to ward off wild beasts.
Procession
The
firewood required for this purpose was
collected in toto for the whole year and brought there in a
procession on the night of Nikini Poya, or the August full moon. It
was known as the Daramiti Perahera or Procession of the Bundles of
firewood.
Today
you can find a bodhi tree in the
compound of almost every Buddhist Temple in the island. It attracts
as much veneration as the Buddha statue in the shrine
room.
In the
words of historian Paul E. Peiris:
"It is doubtful whether any other single event in the long history of
their race has seized upon the imagination of the Sinhalese with such
tenacity as the planting of the Sri Maha Bodhi.
"Like
its roots which find sustenance on the
face of the bare rock and cleave their way through the stoutest
fabric, the influence of what it represents has penetrated into the
inner most being of the people."
The Island
H2.06
The historic
mission of
Ven. Mahinda Thera 2307 years ago
D.P.B.
Ellepola
According
to the Mahavamsa, the best
available literary source of our ancient history, Mahinda Thera
arrived in Sri Lanka on the Full Moon Poson Poya day in the year 236
Buddhist Era. This memorable day marks the Great Awakening in the
annals of our twenty five centuries of recorded history.
Poson
Full Moon day at the time was a day of
festivity. Devanampiya Tissa with a band of followers was engaged in
royal sport. The hunters were looking out for a stag to be shot at.
The king was ready with his royal bow and arrows. Just then, he saw a
stag grazing. Knowing well that it is no sport to shoot at an animal
when it partakes any food, the king sounded his bow string at which
the stag ran towards Ambastala, the highest peak in the Mihintale
Mountain. The king gave chase and reached the very spot when he heard
the words Tissa! Tissa! being uttered. He looked up towards the peak
and saw Ven. Mahinda in the company of four monks and a layman. The
sight pleased the king and on inquiry the chief among them radiant as
the Sun’s rays in his saffron robes and shiny shaven head answered
thus;
"Monks
are we, Oh! great king, disciples of
the king of Truth; Compassion towards thee are we come hither from
Jambudipa" - Mahavansa Chap. 14.
And so
it came to pass the commencement of
an era of virtue and wisdom. Most Venerable Mahinda Thera continued
his missionary activity in great compassion until his death at the
age of 80.
The
period of island’s history under the
reigns of Devanampiya Tissa and his brother Uttiya were an era of
peace and prosperity. The country had already benefitted by the
Aryanization of its culture. However, the country was in need of a
more ethical and philosopical religion which could answer the
problems of life here and hereafter and also challenge the mythical
beliefs of the common folk. Introduction and propagation of Buddhism
undoubtedly resulted in the growth of social cultured and economical
status of Sri Lanka. The Sinhala race rose to a zenith of glory and
grandeur to become one of the recognized nations in Asia. Literary
activities received royal patronage. Art and architecture were bound
to improve as monasteries, stupas assembly halls and vihares began to
be built. Sculpture and painting developed which enriched the
cultural heritage of the Sinhalese.
Sri
Lanka was advantageous in that
Devanampiya Tissa had established friendly relations with Asoka
exchanging letters and gifts, which preceded the mission of Mahinda
Thera. Another significant factor was that Aaoka had a special regard
and affection for the people of Sri Lanka. This mutual understanding
is further clarified by the fact that some of those that accompanied
Mahinda Thera were Asoka’s kinsmen. The mission to Sri Lanka was
therefore by far the most successful of Asoka’s missions.
Although
Mahavamsa as well as other Pali
chronicles describe the events in a very elaborate manner, there is
absolutely no reason to disbelieve all details stated about the
mission to Lanka. The Mahawamsa mentions in detail the arrival of the
Bodhi Tree which occur six months later. Even if we set aside all
literary evidence regarding these events, there are the archeological
facts that are useful. The names of the famous monks of India at the
time Moggaliputta Tissa Thera and two others referred to in our
chronicles in connection with the mission to Lanka is also seen
mentioned in pre-Christian Brahmi inscriptions on relic caskets
excavated at Sanchi. Asoka’s Rupanath Edict seems to refer to the
incident where the emperor consents his children Mahinda and
Sangamitta entering the order of the monks and nuns, respectively.
Scholars in the calibre of Dr. Wilhem Geiger and Dr. Rhys Davids are
of opinion that the carved slabs of stone at the Sanchi Stupa
Gate-way depicts the arrival of Mahinda Thera as well as the advent
of the Bodhi Tree by Sanga Mitta Theri. These evidences would suffice
for us to determine that the Buddhist missions to Sri Lanka together
with some of its details are authentic and therefore
historical.
In
conclusion, I wish to quote Dr. G.P.
Malalasekara Ph.D; D. Lit., on the subject of "The Conversion of
Ceylon".
"The
mission of Emperor Asoka to Ceylon was
amongst the greatest civilizing influences of the world, for it
bequeathed to the Sinhalese a gentleness of disposition and a
nobility and refinement of character of which neither the ravages of
time nor centuries of ruthless warfare, nor the insidious attacks of
modern commercialism have succeeded in depriving them".
H2.07
How
the Vesak Poya
was
declared a holiday
Colombo
East-West Group
Corr.
The
Director of National Archives Dr. K.D.G.
Wimalaratne recently traced the history leading to the declaration of
the Vesak Poya Day as a holiday in Sri Lanka.
Colonel
Henry Steele Olcott, being inspired
by the Buddhist religious controversies with the Christians led by
Ven. Migettuwatte Gunananda Thera and other Buddhist monks
established the Buddhist Theosophical Society in 1880 and the
Buddhist Defence Committee in 1884 to bring about a revival in
Buddhism, its education and culture in the country. The speaker was
addressing a public meeting held recently at Vajiraramaya,
Bambalapitiya .
The
suppression of Buddhist activities by
the Portuguese, the Dutch and the English led to lethargy and
inactivity of Buddhists. The Dutch had made Sunday a holiday and Poya
Day a working day. The English continued this regulation. Lansage Don
Andiris Dharmagunawardena who had donated the land to establish the
Vidyodaya Pirivena was elected president of the Buddhist Defence
Committee and Carolis Poojitha Gunawardena was appointed its
Secretary. The Buddhist Defence Committee worked hard to revive
Buddhism and Buddhist activities in the country. As a result the
Vesak Poya Day was declared a public holiday by the English
government on March 27, 1885. On behalf of the Buddhist Defence
Committee Carolis Poojitha Gunawardena designed the Buddhist Flag and
it was ceremonially hoisted on Vesak day at Deepaduttarama Vihara,
Kotahena, the temple of Ven. Migettuwatte Gunananda Thera. Today the
Buddhist flag designed by C.P. Gunawardena is universally accepted as
the international Buddhist flag with some modification. This year the
United Nations Organisation declared the Vesak Day an international
holiday.
Author,
poet, critic and educationist,
Sandadas Coperahewa spoke of the contribution made by Vajiraramaya in
Bambalapitiya to Buddhist education and Buddhist activities. Ven.
Pelene Vajiragnana Thera the founder of Vajiraramaya was an eminent
scholar, linguist, author, poet, critic, and above all a great
educationist. He had realized that to impart a sound Buddhist
education the educator had to be thorough in Sinhala, Pali, Sanskrit
and English at least. He should also have an indepth knowledge of the
Dhamma and the world. Most of his pupils Vens. Kotahene Narada,
Kotahene Piyadassi, Pamburana Metteyiya, Madihe Panngnaseeha,
Bambalapitiya Kassapa and others possessed such knowledge in
abundance. And they have been successful in their Buddhist education
endeavours. Ven. Narada and Ven. Piyadassi became two of the most
recognized and internationally acclaimed Buddhist missionaries of the
century.
The
Bauddha Lamaya a magazine for the young
started by Ven. Vajiragnana and edited by Ven. Metteyiya was the best
magazine of its kind published in the country without a break for
over 4 decades. Although it was meant for the young it had enough
material for the grownups. Ven. Vajiragnana spoke and wrote few words
but they were so rich and full of meaning. It was not his habit to
waste words. His pupils followed this practice.
20 06 2000 - The Island
H2.08
King
Wessanthara and
the
cave he lived in exile
Anura Jayatunge
King
Dharmashoka constructed, located and identified
84,000 places of religious worship with the help of Upaguththa Maha
Arahat.
General
Cunningham named the Father of Archeology by the Indians
was able to find the rock cave where king Wessanthra lived.
This
cave was visited by two travelling monks from China in 521 AD
and again in 629 AD.
General
Cunningham was responsible for finding the religious
places of Sankassa, Kusinara, Srawasthi and famous Thakshila.
General
Cunningham was appointed Director of Archaeology in charge
of India in 1870 and he has published more than 13 research papers
about archeological excavations in India. He was born in 1840, the
2nd son of Alan Cunningham, a Scottish poet, and died in 1893, after
being knighted for his findings in India. He was responsible for
finding the religious places of: "Sankassa, Kusinara, Srawasthi, and
famous Thakshila". He was named the "Father of Archaeology" by the
Indians. Sir Cunningham claimed he was able to find the rock cave
where King "Wessanthara" lived.
Construction
of 84,000 places of worship
It is
well known that King Dharmashoka constructed, located and
identified 84,000 places of religious worship with the help of
"Upaguththa" Maha arahat (who was a fourth generation Buddhist Arahat
living during King Dharmashoka's time. Being a Arahath he was able to
foresee the future as well as the past and on invitation of King
Dharmashoka, showed him places dating back to Lord Buddha Kakusanda
and Lord Budddha Konagama's time.
King
Dharmashoka being true to his word, constructed more than
84,000 monuments in India and some of them have survived up to date.
Arahat
"UpaGuththa" was a student of Arahath "Yasa" (who was a 3rd
generation Arahath after Lord Buddha) and his capability to see the
future is explained from the following incidents.
Kunala
- son of king Dharmashoka
King
"Dharma-shoka's" queen named Pad-Mawathi had a son named
Dharmawardana, who was fondly called by King Dharmashoka as Kunala
because of his beautiful eyes. Once he want to see Arahath "Yasa" at
Kakuthya-rama temple who saw that Kunala will go blind in the near
future for a sin committed in his previous birth. (He has removed
eyes of five hundred animals to keep them from escaping back to the
Jungle). Arahat "Yasa" asked him remember that "all beautiful things
are of temporary nature and will get destroyed as time passes".
Another
young wife of King Dharma-shoka named Thishyarakshita
loved Kunala for his beautiful eyes, and when he refused to see her
secretly, she sent orders under King's seal to remove his eyes. None
came forward to carry out this order, as he was much loved by his
men. But Kunala himself got his eyes removed telling " being the next
King to be in line, he should always follow ruling Kings orders
precisely
King
Dharmashoka was very sick at this time and was not able to
attend to his royal duties for some time, and he fainted when he
found his son has lost his eye sight. He immediately wanted to
destroy Queen Thishyarakshitha" (whom Kunala pardoned, chiming it was
not his wish to harm even the worst enemy and it is said that Kunala
regained his eyesight thus showing maithree or compassion to his
enemies.)
King
Dharmashoka kept his Queen in a closed house arrest
thereafter and punished the kingsman who allowed his son "Kunala" to
remove his eyes even after they saw the Kings seal.
King
Dharmashoka constructed a large stupa or a pagoda about 100
feet tall where Kunala lost his sight.
Findings
of General Cunningham- Based on Hue Sean (629 AD)
General
Cunningham found this pagoda at Karmal near Thakshila,
following the book of Hue-Sean who was a Chinese travelling Buddhist
monk, who came to India in 629 AD. He lived in India for 16 years and
came back to China in 645 AD. The document prepared by Hue-Sean, the
places he visited in India, and monuments constructed by King
Dharmashoka helped General Cunningham to find these places very
clearly.
Hue-Sean
claims that he came to Siva Rata in India and saw the
following monuments constructed by King Dharmashoka. First one is the
monument constructed to mark the place King Wessanthara was separated
from his family, and again Hue-Sean has also seen a monument where
King Wessanthara handed over his children to a Brahamin named Jujaka.
He also claimed that he saw the cave where king Wessanthara lived.
Confirmation
by Sun-Yun (521 AD)
This
story is reconfirmed by another travelling monk named Sun-Yun
who came to India in 518 AD and returned there in 521 AD almost 100
years before Hu-Sean.
Sun-Yun
says he saw the cave in which King Wessanthara lived as a
Brahamin, in exile, and a large flat stone where King Wessanthara
used to sit. He says King Dharmashoka erected a monument in this
place after being shown by Maha Arahat Upa-guththa.
He
also claims that the temple of famous white elephant was
located very closely and inside the temple there was a picture of
King "Wessanthara" handing over his children to poor, a Brahamin,
named Jujaka and all Tarter people weep when they see these pictures!
King
Wessanthara who donated his children
King
Wessanthara was the last human form of Lord Buddha, before
elevating to heaven named Thaw-thisha. He was born again as
Siddhartha Kumara in and became Lord Buddha named Govthama. Lord
Buddha is the greatest being of all three worlds and having power to
show the path of enlightenment for suffering human beings.
General
Cunningham has published his findings in Archeological
survey reports in India" including a diagram of the cave he
identified, situated close to Sivi-Rata.
According
to Buddhist history king Wessanthara would have been
born over a very long period ago according to Budu Maga published by
Upali publications. This completely contradicts the theory of
evaluation where man has evolved from a basic ape and advanced with
in a few years.
A
small child enters the world crying, and leaves the world
crying, facing the death as an old man. Any man who has read
"Mahabarath" and "Buddhist Philosophy" (which ranges between 5000
years to 2500 years) is free to judge whether man is evolving towards
the advancement or becoming an ape day by day.
01 12 2001 - The Island
H2.09
From
the
Footprint of the Buddha
How
should one value this great tradition, and how should one
regard the ancient monuments of Ceylon? There must naturally be a
difference in valuation as the beholder is different. To the Sinhalese
Buddhist, it must mean something more than it could mean to anyone
else. But there is a millennium between the ancient tradition and the
present. Besides, there is the rift which some five hundred years and
more of foreign rule have made in ways of life and of thought. Just as
the Indian settlers came to an island in which primitive cults were
replaced by Buddhism, so it might seem that the West came to Ceylon in
the sixteenth century, and has since then been responsible for a
‘spiritual’ and material conquest of the island. But in both these
cases what truly belonged to it was never lost it persisted, ready to
issue forth again. Recent events show how strongly it has flowed
underground, and how intensely it can gush out.
Whether
in the altered social and economic structure of Ceylon,
where ‘all’s changed now’, these waters can be a healing sources or a
bitter potion, only the collective wisdom of all the present-day
inhabitants of Lanka, and not of the Sinhalese alone, must decide. But
this would be the subject of another study.
Whatever
the future may bring, to all those who come to the
ancient monuments of Ceylon,, they must possess a value and a
character. They may chasten our pride,, amaze our intellects or move
our feelings, but it is well to remember that even their computations
are values of limited currency. The sensibilities of the majority of
men are so hardened today that if any one single priceless possession
of the world’s art were to disappear, it would apparently make little
difference to the sum of things. The scale of what we are now asked to
comprehend is so vast, that it would be prudent to be unmoved if
Charters were to be destroyed and a bomb obliterated Athens. It may be
that only little of the ancient art of Ceylon could be placed beside
the wealth of ancient Egypt, or Rome or India; but such things as the
vahalkada at Mihintale, the moon stones at Anuradhapura, the statue of
the king at Polonnaruva, and Sigiriya,, stand in their own right of
excellence as records of artistic achievement in no need of support
from comparative judgement or prejudice.
The
aesthetic emotion has been variously described in various
cultures, but one might,, in general, understand by it that state of
feeling — of pleasure or joy — removed for the time being from
practicality, and created by the contemplation of an artistic object
which continues to stimulate our reactions. There is in the feeling
created a species of growth which, as our senses return to the object,
receives new impulses through our delighted attention to it. The Indian
conception is thus put by Melle Auboyer in connection with the
paintings of Ajanta: ‘The aim of the painter...is to produce in the
spectator a psychic state called sentiment (rasa) or more properly
savour. This is the science of the hidden significance of external
appearances, of the formation of a traditional mental image to be
projected to the sensibility of the spectator, arousing in him a
subjective sentiment...The painter...determines the form and produces
artificially in the spectator certain sentiments equally artificial but
also beneficial in kind’.
The
ground common to these descriptions is an area of feeling
which the transformation of reality produces in the sensitive
spectator. No such spectator confronting the best of the art of the
ancient tradition of Ceylon could fail to respond aesthetically. There
is, in ancient Buddhist thought an emotion described as a state of
serene joy derived from the contemplation of a Buddha image - assuredly
its strongest components may be religious, but in its essence this,
too, is an aesthetic emotion. So whether one is a Buddhist or not,
there could be aroused in one the emotion of Buddhalampiti as one
stands before the sedant Buddha at Anuradhapura, or see the statues in
the Gal Vihara Polonnaruva.
"Avkana" (pic by Nihal Fernando,
Studio Times, "Sri Lanka: A
Personal Odyssey")
H2.10
The
sacred Bo tree was no dwarf Bonsai
Godwin Witane
The Bo
Sapling brought to Lanka by Theri Sangamitta 2300 years ago
was no dwarf Bonsai. It was the right branch of the parent Bo Tree
under which Prince Siddartha Gautama attained Enlighment - the Dakshina
Saakawa. The Mural as illustrated by the famous artist Solias Mendis at
Kelani Viharaya was his fertile imagination put into drawing.The
description how the branch of the parent Bo Tree was obtained by King
Asoka is explained in the Mahawansa, the Great Chronicle of the
Sinhalese. Having got on to a platform to the height of the branch,
King Asoka took red arsenic with a golden brush, drew a line and made
"Satthiyak Kriya" affirmation of the truth, ‘If the great Bodhi Tree
should go from here to the island of Lanka and if I am unalterably firm
in the Faith of the Buddha, let the auspicious Right Branch of the
Great Bodhi Tree sever by itself and be placed in the Golden Bowl here’
The
Great Bodhi Branch severed itself at the time and stood above
the Bowl filled with fragrant earth. King Asoka drew around the trunk
of the Bodhi Branch ten arsenic lines, each three finger breadths
apart. Behold ten big roots from: the first line and ten small roots
from each of the others issued forth and dropped down in the form of a
net. Seeing this miracle the King was greatly happy. Mahawansa says
that the earth trembled and quaked at the miracle. It further describes
how new Saplings sprung up from a ripe fruit. In actual practice the
Southern Branch of the Sacred Bo Tree - Dhakshina Saakaawa, would have
been planted in a great receptacle of huge proportions and tendered
carefully by renowned Botanists until it grew in strength with the aid
of a cluster of roots.
It was
important that the Bo Tree should withstand inclement
weather during its arduous voyage by sea from Tamlaripiti in India to
Jambukolapatuna in Lanka. Although the artist had illustrated a tender
tree safely in a begging bowl, the container in which the sapling was
planted would have weighed heavy needing many hands to handle it
conveying it to the sailing vessel by which it was taken to Lanka. This
opinion was disclosed by a panel of learned professors at the recent
discussion under Purana Sinhala Wansa Katha conducted by the famous
actor and lyricist Mr. Jackson Anthony in the Swarnawahini. It is said
that King Devanam Piyatissa of Lanka (250-210 B.C.) during whose reign
the Bo Sapling was brought to Lanka he went to Jambukolapatuna and
waded in the sea up to his hips in his royal garb to accept the Noble
Gift sent by King Asoka. The Bo Sapling was brought to Anuradhapura in
a procession in great pomp probably placed in a beautifully decorated
heavy carriage drawn by elephants. This is a symbol of Faith to all
Buddhists in Sri Lanka.
King
Asoka took great interest in the propagation of Buddhism that
besides sending a branch of the Sacred Bo Tree he despatched royal
personages for securing of same. He sent his son and daughter and also
relatives to establish in Lanka 8 of the tribes of Supra Devi, the
mother of Arahat Mahinda and Theri Sangamitta. A son of Sangamitta,
Sumana, too accompanied Mahinda in his first visit to Mihintale.
The
sacred Bo Tree has great significance to the Buddhists the
world over as it was under the shade of the Bo Tree at Buddha Gaya that
Prince Siddhartha Gautama attained Englighment.
The Bo
Sapling was planted in 288 B.C. in Anuradhapura which is
today enduring the changing millennia. A large square with four
entrances formed the courtyard of the Bo Tree. The stone wall measuring
274 feet from East to West and 338 feet from North to South and 10 feet
in height enclosed the courtyard. The width of the wall or Prakaaraya
was 5 feet. The Bo Tree was known as aswatha at the beginning but came
to be known as Bodhi Tree after Bodhi Satwa attained Buddhahood under
it. After the passing away of Buddha the Bo Tree became the symbol of
His presence. Even during Buddha’s time Buddha Himself recognised the
adequacy of the Bo Tree as a fitting symbol to respect and venerate Him
in His absence. The various Chronicles provide information about the
constructions and restorations carried out during the time of different
monarchs at the Bodhi Shrine. King Vasabha (61-III A.D.) added a temple
to the courtyard of the Bodhi Shrine.
The Bo
Tree was neglected during the Cholian period. It was King
Vijayabahi I of Polonnaruwa who restored the Bodhi Tree. A small number
of dedicated Monks living in Monasteries in Anuradhapura continued to
maintain the sacred precints without anybody’s patronage. The Sacred Bo
Tree has survived for over 2300 years withstanding the test of time. At
present the Sacred Bo Tree is under the care and protection of the
National Army as well as under the supervision of the Director
Botanical Gardens who tends to its health.
The
propagation of a plant is done in various ways. The easiest is
through the seed. Next comes grafting where a twig or bud of a parent
tree is grafted to a smaller stock in order to obtain fruit within a
shorter period.
There
are very many trees where the propagation is difficult when
the trees do not bear fruit. In this instance people resort to a method
called ‘Layering’ Having selected a suitable branch of the tree or
creeper a section of the bark is taken out called ring barking. To this
spot is clamped a handful of earth enriched with fertilizer and a
covering done by tying the ends like in a ‘Bond Aluwa’ of Thala guli.
After careful wetting the spot daily with water roots spring up through
the clamp of earth when it is severed from the parent tree and planted
like a new plant. The Bo tree belongs to the family of Ehetu (fig) and
Banyan (nuga) and all these belong to the family of parasitic plants.
The fruits of these trees contain innumerable number of seeds and when
birds eat them and drop their dung on trees or in crevices in buildings
the seeds spring up and grow to huge dimensions sometimes swallowing
the whole of the host tree. Once Wellawatta Market building appeared a
jungle of Bo trees that had taken root on the walls and the roof.
26 05 2002 - The Island
H2.11
Major events
of Buddhism
| c. 800-500 BCE
|
Composition of Hindu Upanishads
|
|
552-479 BCE |
Life of Confucius
|
|
c. 500 BCE |
Life of Lao-tzu
|
| c. 480 BCE |
Birth of the Buddha in Kapilavastu |
| c. 450 BCE |
The
Buddha's enlightenment and first sermon |
| c. 405 BCE |
Death of
the Buddha |
|
c. 405 BCE |
First Buddhist Council, at Rajagrha |
| c. 350 BCE |
Second
Buddhist Council, at Vaisali |
| 327-325 BCE
|
Alexander
the Great in India |
| c. 300 BCE
|
Buddhism
arrives in SE Asia |
| 272 BCE |
Emperor
Asoka takes throne |
| 250 BCE |
Third Buddhist Council, resulting in Great
Schism and Theravada & Mahayana Buddhism |
| 247 BCE |
Mahinda
introduces Buddhism to Sri Lanka |
| 200-0 BCE |
Stupa
construction at Sanci |
| 1st cent. BCE
|
Theravada
Buddhist Canon (Tripitaka) completed in Sri Lanka |
| 1st cent. CE
|
Indian Buddhists settle in Southeast Asia |
| 150-250 CE |
Life of
Nagarjuna |
| 4th cent. |
Rise of
Vajrayana Buddhism |
| 350-650 |
Gupta
dynasty in India; Buddhist philosophy and art flourish |
|
372 CE |
Chinese monks bring Buddhism to Korea |
| 399-414 |
Fa-hsien
travels to India |
|
c. 420 |
Schools of Tiantai, Huayan, Chan, and Jingtu appear in China |
| 520 |
Bodhidharma
arrives in China |
| 526 |
Viniaya school founded in Korea |
| 527 |
Korea
accepts Buddhism |
|
6th cent. |
Burma adopts Theravada Buddhism |
| 552 |
Buddhism
enters Japan from Korea |
|
572-621 |
Prince Shotoku sponsors Buddhism in Japan |
| c. 589
|
Chinese
Buddhist commentaries written |
|
c. 600 |
First diffusion of Buddhism in Tibet |
| 618-50 |
Life of
Songtsen Gampo; establishment of Buddhism in Tibet |
|
618-907 |
Chinese T'ang Dynasty; golden age of Buddhism in China |
| 7th cent. |
Mahayana
Buddhism adopted in Indonesia |
|
8th cent. |
Buddhism becomes state religion of Japan |
| 741 |
Japanese
emperor orders a temple be built in every province |
|
c. 792-94 |
The Great Samye Debate decides on Indian Mahayana Buddhism as the
form for Tibet |
| 836-842 |
King
Langdharma persecutes Tibetan Buddhists |
|
845 |
Chinese emperor suppresses Buddhism |
| early 10th cent.
|
Korea institutes a Buddhist constitution |
|
11th cent. |
King of Burma restores Theravadin monasticism. Mahayana Buddhism
declines |
| mid-12th cent. |
Buddhism is virtually extinct in India |
|
1185-1333 |
During the Kamakura period in Japan, schools of Rinzai,
Soto Zen, Jodo Shu (Pure Land), Jodo Shinshu (True Pure Land), and
Nichiren develop. |
| 1231-59 |
Mongols invade Korea, destroy Buddhist scriptures |
|
1253 |
Mongolian leader Kublai Khan accepts Tibetan Buddhism |
| 1360 |
Theravada
Buddhism becomes state religion of Thailand |
|
14th cent. |
Theravada Buddhism introduced in Laos |
| 15th cent. |
Theravada
Buddhism dominant in Cambodia |
|
1578 |
Sonam Gyatso is titled the Dalai Lama by the Mongolian leader Altan
Khan |
| 1592-98 |
Japanese
invade Korea |
|
1617-82 |
Life of the fifth Dalai Lama and beginning of rule of Tibet by
Dalai Lamas |
| 1617-82 |
Life of Basho; Buddhist influence on haiku and the arts
in Japan |
|
17-18th cent. |
Korean Buddhism revives after regaining independence |
| 1749 |
Mongolian
Buddhist canon translated from Tibetan |
|
1868 |
Shinto reinstated as national religion of Japan |
| 1910-45 |
Reformations
of Korean and Chinese Buddhism |
|
1945 |
Religious freedom introduced in Japan, with no official
national religion. |
| 1949 |
Buddhism
suppressed by Chinese communist government |
|
1950 |
Tenzin Gyatso becomes the fourteenth Dalai Lama. China
invades Tibet and suppresses Buddhism. |
| 1959 |
The Dalai
Lama goes into exile |
|
1976 |
Upon the death of Mao, Buddhism begins to revive in
China. |
| 1989 |
International Network of Engaged Buddhists founded |
|
1995 |
UK Association of Buddhist Studies founded |
| 2001 |
Destruction of standing Buddha statues at Bamiyan by
Taliban regime |
Sources
1. John Bowker, ed.,
The Cambridge Illustrated History of
Religions (Cambridge UP, 2002).
2. Damien Keown,
A Dictionary of Buddhism
(Oxford UP, 2003), Appendix VI, pp. 355-57.
H2.12
Bodhgaya to all
humankind
Dilrukshi Handunnetti
Bodhgaya:
The very word conjures up images of the sacred site
where Buddha attained enlightenment, under the shade of a magnificent
Bodhi tree. After more than 2,500 years, it remains the most supreme
and inspirational place of Buddhist worship in the world.
The
historic site, declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in
June this year, will evoke much religious fervour this December when
Bodhgaya is dedicated to all humankind. Massive celebrations have been
planned and the city of Gaya will be then renamed as Gautam Nagar, the
cradle of Buddhism.
But a
tussle between the Bihar administration and the Bodhgaya
management is delaying the dedication ceremony, according to an
official associated with the development planning. And the failure to
reach a consensus is also making the ambitious development plans rot,
while the people await renewed interest in their city's development.
As the
Bihar administration continues to insist on clearing the
structures within the buffer zone, as required by UNECO, the grand
dedication ceremony has been postponed to December with no date being
fixed.
Elaborate
plans are afoot to unearth the Buddhist heritage that
remains buried and to restore the past glory. Gautam Nagar will be
developed under a new development model. " The dedication ceremony will
be an extremely elaborate and evocative one that would draw all
attention to Bodhgaya again, said Director, Indian Tourism Development
Corporation, Ashwani Lohani.
Lohani
who was the driving force behind the initial plan to win
UNESCO heritage status for the site, told The Sunday Leader that
Bodhgaya's dedication will inspire the entire Buddhist world "with
participation from all Buddhist countries and state patronage from
India."
Boghgaya
is a magnificent temple complex found in the state of
Bihar in Eastern India, within the administrative district of Gaya.
Administered by the Indian Mahabodhi Society, Bodhgaya is the one
destination that draws the highest number of tourists from Buddhist
countries.
Declared
a World Heritage Site by UNESCO for its outstanding
universal value, Bodhgaya is the 23rd such site in India and the very
first in the state of Bihar. At present, there are 730 such sites the
world over.
While
the tussle continues, Indian authorities have made ambitious
plans for Bodhgaya. As the dedication ceremony draws near, the Bihar
administration is busy attempting to clear the unauthorised structures
within the area that is to be declared as the buffer zone.
Ambitious
plan
The
plans primarily include a special project to unearth a buried
city in the area once known as Uruvela, a master plan to develop 12
acres and promote massive religious tourism, all of which are a part of
one ambitious plan.
Proposed
in March 2000, the UNESCO World Heritage Site status
announcement made in Budapest, in June, led to massive celebrations in
all parts of India, particularly in the state of Bihar as people
exchanged sweetmeats, lit crackers and played traditional music in a
spirit of celebration. They will soon have more cause for celebration,
when Bodhgaya is ceremonially dedicated to all humanity.
As the
Bihar government prepares to launch a massive development
programme in the city of Gaya, the Mahabodhi management entrusted with
the administrative responsibilities and the protection of the unique
site since1953 has called for the support of Buddhists world over to
restore Bodhgaya to its past glory.
The
proposed city of Gautam Nagar needs the urgent developing of a
buffer zone around the Mahabodhi temple complex, removal of all shops,
business establishments, government and residential buildings within
the demarcated area forthwith to meet UNESCO requirements.
The
Bihar Urban Development Ministry and the Maghad Division are
to jointly introduce a three-phased development programme in Gaya,
which will cover a buffer zone of 12 acres , create a meditation park,
Buddhist museum and information centers, at a cost of US $ 1,765,500.
Buried
city
The
master plan will also include the creation of a backdrop, with
appropriately landscaped lawns, flower beds, a deer park and meditation
areas for monks and laymen.
Meanwhile,
the Maghad Archaeological Development Project has also
planned extensive excavations and conservation to reveal the buried
ancient city of the Mahabodhi Complex with its many sanctuaries built
by various kings of different countries, during the course of many
centuries.
" It
is an inspiring project. I think an orphan finally able to
trace his mother would feel this excited - looking for the past link"
an official involved in the project said.
Besides
all the development work concerning the site, the Indian
authorities are concerned about promoting religious tourism to
Bodhgaya. Come December, there will be direct flights from Delhi to
Bodhgaya daily.
It
would augur well for Bodhgaya and the Buddhist people the world
over to ensure that immediate action is taken to settle the minor
political dispute and make way for the necessary development to take
place. The place where Gautama Buddha attained enlightenment should
inspire people to seek truth and reflect upon life, than be grounds to
a dispute that prevents Bodhgaya from achieving its full potential.
In the
philosophical and cultural context, the Mahabodhi Temple
Complex is of great relevance to the most important events in the life
of Gautama Buddha, and hence forms much of the tangible heritage.
The
temple itself, a grand 50 metre high structure is regarded as
a significant component of the site, which is also one of the most
ancient temple structures existing in the Indian sub continent, dating
back to 6th Century BC. It is also believed to be one of the very few
representations of the architectural genius of the Indian people in
constructing a fully developed brick temple.
Living
testimony
The
complex itself forms another significant part of the site,
which is living testimony to India's developed architecture and
artistic finesse. It contains several well-preserved temple structures
and the famous grand structure.
The
sculptured stone railings are held to be 'an outstanding
example of the art and architecture of the period of emperor Ashoka
(3rd Century BC).
Besides
the main temple complex, there are six other sacred spots
including the sacred Bodhi tree under which Buddha attained
enlightenment and the lotus pond where Buddha meditatedafterwards.
Referring
to the grand architectural style manifested in the
complex, the proposal forwarded by the Indian Tourism Development
Corporation (ITDC) to UNESCO canvassing World Heritage Site status
said: "As such, it bears an exceptional testimony to a cultural
tradition and to the prevalent forms of architecture in the late Gupta
Period, also known as the Golden Age of Indian Culture."
The
Buddha is believed to have said to his closest disciple,
Ananda Thero:
"
There are four places Ananda, which the believing man should
visit with feelings of reverence. The place Ananda, at which the
believing man can say,
Here
the Tathagata was born (Lumbini)
Here
the Tathagata attained the supreme and perfect insight
(Bodhgaya)
Here
was the kingdom of righteousness set on foot by the Tathagata
(Saranath)
Here
is the Tathagata passed finally away in that utter passing
away which leaves nothing whatsoever remain behind (Kusinagar)"
(Maha
Parnibbana Sutta translated by T.W. Rhys Davis)
20 10 2002 - Sunday Observer
H2.13
The existence of
Buddhism before the arrival of Arhath Mahinda in Sri Lanka
Dr. Keerthi Jayasekera
Poson full moon day is associated with the
official introduction of Buddhism to Sri Lanka by Arhath Mahinda around
236 B.C. This happened over 250 years after the passing away of Buddha.
During this long period of time did Buddhism exist in Ceylon (Sri
Lanka)? Mahavansa the great chronicle of Sri Lanka, Deepawansa the
History of the Island and Samathapasadika the Pali translation of the
Sinhala commentaries of the Vinaya Pitaka; mentions of three visits by
the Buddha, during his lifetime to this island. First visit took place
in the fifth month after the enlightenment. The Naga Maniakkhika of
Kalyani, we are told, accepted the Buddhist faith during the first
visit of the master. The second visit took place in the fifth year
after the Enlightenment. This visit was to save two clans from an
impending war. After settling there dispute the Buddha preached the
Doctrine and eighty kotis of Nagas were converted. Three years later
the Buddha visited the island again at the request of Maniakkhika,
during which Buddha is said to have left the imprint of his foot on the
peak of Sumana Mountain (Adam's peak).
What is interesting is the fact Mahavansa was
written 1100 years, Deepawansa after 900 years, Samathapasadika after
1000 years after the passing away of the Buddha. Dr. E.W. Adikaram in
his Ph.D (London) thesis, a brilliant masterpiece of original research,
"Early History of Buddhism in Ceylon" says: "these visits are recorded
only in the Deepawansa, Samathapasadika and Mahavansa. No mention of is
made of them in any part of the Pali Canon. This negative evidence,
though a weighty one, is not sufficient for us to arrive at a decision
and deny the truth of this tradition. This tradition may probably have
risen from the arrival, before the advent of Mahinda of some Buddhist
missionaries from India and also from the existence in Ceylon of a
considerable number of Buddhists among the earlier inhabitants, namely
the Yakkhas and the Nagas.
The Mahiyangana thupa, says the grate
chronicle, existed in Ceylon long before the arrival of Mahinda. When
the Buddha first visited Ceylon the deva Mahasumana of the Sumanakuta
Mountain requested the Buddha to give him something to worship. The
Master took a handful of hairs from his head and gave it to the deva.
The latter enshrined it respectively in a thupa which he built at the
place where the Master had sat. After passing away of the Buddha, the
Thera Sarabahu, a disciple of the thera Sariputta, brought the collar
bone of the Buddha and deposited in the same thupa. Later
Uddhaculabhaya, the son of king Devanampiyatissa's brother's, saw the
wondrous cetiya and covered it over afresh and made it thirty cubits
high. Still later king Dutthagamini, dwelling there while he made war
upon the Damilas, built a mantle cetiya over it eighty cubits high".
Dr. Adikaram goes on to say: "the arrival of princess Bhaddakacchana
and her retinue too, brings us to the same or more decisive
conclusion'. Bhaddakacchana was the youngest daughter of Pandu, a
cousin of the Buddha. She is said to be very closely related to the
Buddha, and one may rightly infer that she and her friends were not all
ignorant of the teachings of there royal Kinsman.... Secondly we are
told they came disguised as nuns (Pabbajita)... considering the
locality from which they came and their connections with the Buddha’s
family, it is very likely that this word (Pabbajita) signified Buddhist
bhikkhunies".
What was the society like before the advent of
Arhath Mahinda in Sri Lanka? Again we turn to Dr. Adikaram book.
1. Brahmanism, from the very beginning,
since the arrival of Vijaya and his followers in about the year 483
B.C. the Brahmis enjoyed a prominent status in Ceylon. There were Brahmanas who came along with Vijaya to Ceylon. Upatissa was one of
them. He founded the village Uppatissagama which was for some time the
capital of Ceylon. The same Brahmana held the post of chaplain
(purohita) to king Vijaya. Pandukabhaya as a young price received his
education under the brahmana named Pandula. The son of the latter
became in due course the chaplain to Pandukabhaya (394 - 307 B.C.).
When Devanampiyatissa sent presents to Ashoka, the price Arittha was
accompanied by the king's chaplain who was a Brahmana. The presence of
these Brahmanas naturally implies the existence of there religious
beliefs in Ceylon at that time.
2. Worship of Yaksas: King Pandukabhaya
built a temple for the Yaksa Cittaraja. The conditions, in pre-Buddhist
Ceylon of the Yaksa cult appear to have been exactly similar to those
in North India in the time of the Buddha; and in spite of the adoption
of Buddhism as the national religion of the earlier Yaksa worship
flourished side among the masses and has persisted down to the modern
times.
3. Tree Deities: Pandukabhaya fixed a
Banyan tree near the western gate of Anuradhapura as the abode of
Vaisravana, and a Palmyra palm as that of Vyadhadeva. Here we have two
instances of the worship of tree deities in pre Buddhist Ceylon.
4. Patron Deities: the Vyadha-deva,
mention above was the patron deity of the hunters. Another such deity
was Kammara-deva, or god of the blacksmiths. In addition to those
deities of particular trades these was also a guardian deity for the
whole of Anuradhapura city.
5. Jainism: Pandukabhaya is said to
have built dwelling places for the Niganthas (Jains) named Jotiya and
Kumbanda. Another Nigantha called Giri lived in the locality where
Jotiya was. The monastery of Giri was demolished by king Vattagamini
Abhaya (29-17 B.C) and in its place was built the Abhayagirivihara,
which in subsequent times, played an important part in the history of
Buddhism in Ceylon. Ever since the arrival of Vijaya, there was a
constant flow of immigrants to Ceylon from India.
6. Paribbajakas, Ajivakas etc: the
Paribbajakas, a class of wondering teachers or Sophists and Ajivakas
the followers of Makkhali Gosala (contemporary of the Buddha) too were
known in early Ceylon. Pandukabhaya built a monastery for the
Paribbajakas and another for the Ajivakas
...... As shown in the preceding pages, there
lived in pre-Mahindian Ceylon, people belonging to almost every
religious sect then existing -in India. Even Ajivakas who were, by no
means, so numerous as the followers of the Buddha, are mentioned as
living in Ceylon. How then is one to account for the absence of any
Buddhists? The only explanation possible is that silence was observed
with regard to there existence in order to create a dark background on
the canvas on which the enthusiastic narrator of Buddhist history might
successfully paint his glowing picture of Mahinda's miraculous
conversion of the island.
Again, when we consider how rapidly the
conversion of Ceylon (Lanka) took place, it is difficult to believe
that the people were till then entirely ignorant of the teaching. After
the very first discourse of Mahinda forty thousand people including the
king embraced the Buddhist faith. His other discourses, too were
equally successful (seven discourses followed in all) all these facts
help us to conclude the Buddhism did exist in Ceylon (Lanka) before the
time of Mahinda, though it was only after Devanampiyatissa's conversion
that it became the state religion of the country. Moreover, it may be
justly said that Mahinda's mission had as its chief aim not to mere
introduction of the teachings of the Buddha to Ceylon but the formation
of the monastic order and thereby the "establishment' of the Sasana in
the island". The arrival of Arhath Mahinda took place 236 years after
the passing away of the Buddha.
During this long period of over two hundred
years how did Buddhism fare in India? In the "2500 years of Buddhism"
the Indian government publication, Dr. A. C. Banerjee says, "the
Buddha's saying and their commentaries were handed down orally from
teacher to disciples. Unlike the Vedic texts, how ever not enough care
was not taken for the preservation of the actual words of the teacher,
not to speak of their interpretations. In the Mahaparinibbhana Sutta,
the teacher apprehended that his sayings might suffer distortion, and
so as noted above, he cautioned his disciples about the four ways in
which his instructions were to be verified. A centaury is a long time,
and about a hundred years after his passing, differences arose among
the monks about the actual words of the teacher and their
interpretations. Once the monks took the liberty of bringing
dissensions to the Sangha, they went on multiplying till the number of
sects reached the figure of eighteen in the second and third centuries
after the Buddha's death". Writing in the same publication, Bhikshu
Jinananda MA. PhD (London), Professor of Pali and Buddhalogy, Nalanda
Post Graduate Pali institute, says: "Moggaliputta Tissa is reputed to
have converted the Emperor Asoka to the Buddhist faith. According to
the Mahavansa, he was born in a Brahmana family and learned the three
Vedas before he was sixteen. He was however won over to the new faith
by the Thera Siggava and very soon attained to Arhatship with all its
attendant supernatural powers. It was under his influences that the
emperor made over to the Buddhist order his son Mahinda and Daughter
Sangamitta. These two crossed to Lanka and converted to the Buddhist
faith.
....... The venerable monk instructed the king
in the holy religion of the Buddha for a week. The king thereafter
convoked an assembly of the whole community of Bhikkhus. He called the
bhikkhus of several persuasions to his presence and asked them to
expound the teachings of the blessed one. They set fourth there
misguided beliefs, such as the doctrine of the external soul, and so
on. These heretical monks numbering sixty thousands were expelled from
the brotherhood by the king. He thereafter interrogated the true
believers about the doctrine taught by the blessed one and they
answered that it was Vibhajjavada (the religion of analytical
reasoning). When the Thera corroborated the truth of this answer, the
king made request that the brotherhood should hold the Uposahta
ceremony so that the whole community might be purified of evil
elements. The Thera was made the guardian of the order.
Thera Tissa thereafter elected a thousand
bhikkhus of the brotherhood who were well versed in the three Pitakas
to make a compilation of the true doctrine. For nine moths he worked
with the monks and the compilation of the true Tripitaka was completed.
This council was held in the same manner and with the same zeal as
those of Mahakassapa and Thera Yasa (first and second Buddhist
councils) respectively. In the midst of the council Thera Tissa set
fourth the Kathavatthupakarana wherein the heretical doctrines were
thoroughly examined and refuted. Thus ended the third council in which
a thousand bhikkhus took part. One of the momentous results of this
council was the dispatch of missionaries to the different countries of
the world for the propagation of the Saddhamma. From the Edicts of
Asoka we know of the various Buddhist missions he sent to far - off
countries in Asia, Africa and Europe."
The third Buddhist council was held in
Pataliputra (Present Patna) in the year 253 B.C. Megasthenes the Greek
ambassadors to the Imperial Court of Chandraguppta (Asoka's
Grandfather) has described in detail the beauty and splendour of the
well planned city of gorgeous wooden buildings, which was 9 miles in
length and 11/2 miles in breadth in the shape of a parallelogram. Greek
Ambassadors to Bindusara (Asoka's father) was Deimachos and Dionysios
was Greek Ambassador to Asoka at Pataliputra. Asoka's thirteenth edict,
Ceylon (Sri Lanka) is mentioned as one of the many countries in which
conquest by the Dhamma had been made by him. Dr. S. Paranavitharana in
his book "The Greek and the Mauryas" makes reference to Yavana (Greek)
kings with whom Dharmasoka maintained friendly relations and the
succession of rulers in the kingdoms founded by Alexander's general's,
in the Magadha kingdom. It was Anatogona Gonata who maintained friendly
relations with Dharmasoka, and gave permission for the preaching of the
Buddha-dharma in their respective territories. Mahamahendra-sthavira,
who according to these sources, was a brother and not a son of Asoka,
is said to have visited all these three countries, and preached the
Dharma some time before he came to Ceylon.
Dr. S. Paranavitharana in his book "Sinhalayo"
says: "when saint Mahinda preached Buddhism for the first time in
Ceylon, he gave the explanations, as he had received them from his
teachers, of certain words and expressions in the Pali Sermons. These
were handed down orally with great care in the monasteries; and later
teachers continued to add to this exegetical literature".
(Writer is a Doctor
of-Medicine and Master-of-Arts in Buddhist studies - kirthjames@yahoo.com)
18 06 2008 -
The Island
H2.14
Ancient Buddhist links between Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka
Lakshman Jayawardane in Chennai
The Palk Strait
which lies between Tamil Nadu and Sri Lankan land masses, is seen as a
divider, separating two different distinct ethnicities, religions,
cultures and political entities. But there was a phase in history,
between the early years of the Christian era and the 14th century, when
Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka enjoyed very close ties, thanks to a shared
interest in Buddhism.
At that time, the
Palk Strait was not seen as a divider. Then Buddhism was a bridge
between Sri Lanka and Tamil Nadu. The land of the Tamils has been
called Tamilakum, which means a land where the language Tamil is
spoken. Tamilakum was a region which had the north-east Ventcata hill
or the Tiruppati hill, the southern part of the modern Andhra Pradesh,
as its northern border, Kanniya Kumari or Cape Comerin as the southern
border, the bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea as its eastern and
western borders respectively.
The
ancient Tamilakum encompassed modern Kerala too. Tamilakum was actually
located in the southern part of the Indian peninsula. Present Tamil
Nadu State is much smaller than the Tamilakum.
Now
Tamil Nadu is the only land where the language Tamil is spoken. At
present Tamil country is famous as Tamil Nadu. According to Historians,
Buddhism began to make an impact on Tamil Nadu only in the 4th century
AD.
Buddhism
flourished in Tamil Nadu in Two phases. (1) The early years of Pullava
rule (400-650 AD) (2) The Chola period (mid 9th to early 14th century
AD). Buddhism had then enjoyed a very remarkable popularity in the
Tamil soil.
Although
Buddhism has almost extinct from Tamil Nadu, it has contributed a great
deal to the enrichment of Tamil culture and has exerted a significant
influence, both directly and indirectly, on the Tamil religious and
spiritual consciousness, present as well as past.
It has
expressed itself in exquisite artistic forms and given an enduring
colour and richness to Tamil culture as a whole. It has exerted a
profound influence on the existing religious and social institutions,
language and literature as well as on art and architecture.
The
fascinating story of the historical links - Golden threads between
Buddhism in Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka was narrated by Dr. Shu Hikosake
Director Professor of Buddhism, Institute of Asian Studies in Madras in
his book “Buddhism in Tamil Nadu a new Perspective.”
Dr.
Hikosaka’s study is based on his doctoral dissertation submitted to the
University of Madras. In the conclusion he explains: “Thus Buddhism
remained orphaned in all spheres without proper patronage and
encouragement.
The
Buddhist monks looked for greener pastures in the neighbouring
countries. They found propitious soil in Ceylon and South East Asian
countries. A comparative study of the development of Buddhism in Tamil
Nadu and the neighbouring countries clearly shows the fact that when
Buddhism was in decline in Tamil Nadu, it witnessed tremendous growth
in the neighbouring countries.
The
monks of Tamil Nadu, who had left from their native land, have
contributed a great deal for the growth of Buddhism abroad. In this
sense we may say that the Tamil Buddhist genius was not destroyed but
sublimated in another direction where it has grown with fresh vigour
and vivacity.”
The
earliest inscriptions in Tamil Nadu belong to the third century BC.
They are written in Brahmi character of the time, on the walls of the
natural caves in the Tamil districts of Madura, Ramnad and Tirnnelveli.
They are of considerable interest to students of South Indian Buddhism.
It is
learnt from these Brahmi inscriptions which palaeographically belong to
3rd century BC that Buddhism had come into Tamil Nadu even then. It was
to Asoka and his son Mahinda that the introduction of Buddhism into
Tamil Nadu may be attributed.
Epigraphical
evidence seems to confirm this statement. In his Rock-Edict No. 3,
Asoka says that his Dharma Vijaya prevailed in the border kingdoms of
the Colas, Pandyans and at Tambapanni. But it was his son Mahinda who
was responsible for the introduction of Buddhism in Tamil Nadu.
In
this task, he was helped by Maha Aritta, a nephew of the Sri Lankan
king Devanampiyatissa. Mahinda is said to have erected seven viharas at
Kaveripattinum while he was on his way to Sri Lanka.
Some
Indian scholars are of the opinion that Aritta or Maha-Aritta might
have lived in the caves of the village of Arittapatti in Madura, which
is in Tamil Nadu. According to Dr. Hikosaka Buddhism might have gone to
Sri Lanka from Tamil Nadu, contrary to the general impression.
“Taking
all evidence into account, we may fairly conclude that Mahendra and the
Buddhist missionaries who went to Ceylon (Sri Lanka) could have
embarked for the island from the East coast of the Tamil country. So,
it is quite probable that the Tamil country received Buddhism directly
through missionaries of Asoka.
Buddhism
might have gone to Ceylon (Sri Lanka) from Tamil Nadu by sea-route, a
route by which one can reach Ceylon (Sri Lanka) easily. Since there
existed close cultural affinities between Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and the
Tamil country from time immemorial, the Buddhist activities in India
could have easily influenced in some way or other the Buddhism of
Ceylon (Sri Lanka)” says Dr. Hikosaka.
It is
interesting and appropriate to investigate the interactions of Buddhist
monastic centres between Sri Lanka and Tamil Nadu. The remains of a
Buddhist monastery excavated at Kaveripattinum which could be assigned
to the fourth century, are believed to be the earliest archaeological
relics of Buddhism in Tamil Nadu.
During
the Pallava period, Tamil Nadu boasted of “outstanding Buddhist monks
who had made remarkable contributions to Buddhism thought and learning.
A Buddhist writer Buddhadatta or Thera Buddhaatta as he is called lived
during the time of Accyutarikkanta, Kalabra ruler of the Cola-nadu.
Under
the patronage of this ruler, Buddhadatta wrote many books. In his book
Vinayaviniccaya, he says that due to the patronage of this king he was
able to compose this work.
In the
Abhidhammaratara he gives a glowing account at Kaveripattinum,
Uragapuram, Bhutamangalam and Kanchipuram and the Mahavihara at Ceylon
(Sri Lanka). While he was at Sri Lanka, he composed many Buddhist works
such as Uttara-viniccaya Ruparupa Vibhaga Jinalankara etc.
Buddhaghosha, contemporary of Buddhadatta composed many Buddhist
commentaries.
Buddhaghosha
is a Tamil monk, who made a remarkable contribution to Buddhism in Sri
Lanka. He stayed and studied Buddhist precepts at Mahavihara in
Anuradhapura. The Visuddhimagga was the first work of Buddhaghosha
which was written while he was in Ceylon.
According
to Mahavamsa, it is a summary of the three Pitakas together with the
commentary. When Buddhaghosha had been staying at Granthakara Pirivena
at Anuradhapura, he completed his task of rendering Sinhalese
commentaries of Tripitakas into Pali.
After
a considerable period of religious service in Sri Lanka, he returned to
Tamil Nadu. After Buddhaghosha, the important Theravada monk from the
Tamil country was Dhammapala. Dhammapala lived in the Mahavihara at
Anuradhapura.
He
composed paramathadipani which was a commentary on Buddhaghosha’s work
on Khuddaka Nikaya and Paramathamanjusa, which was a commentary on
Buddhaghosha’s Visuddhimagga. A close study of the three Buddhist monks
viz Buddhadatta, Buddhaghosha and Dhammapala shows that Tamil Buddhists
were closely associated with the Sri Lankan Buddhists around the 5th
century AD.
The
interaction between Tamil Nadu and Sri Lankan monks finds mention in
“Manimekalai”. The 6th century Tamil Buddhist work Manimekali by
Sattanar, is perhaps the most famous of the work done in Tamil Nadu. It
is a work expounding the doctrines and propagating the values of
Buddhism.
The
interaction between Tamil Nadu and Sri Lankan monks finds mention in
“Manimekalai” which is set in the Tamil towns of Kaveipumpattinam
Kanchi and Vanchi.
There
is mention about the presence of wondering monks of Sri Lanka in
Vanchi, which was the capital of the Chera Kings of Tamil Nadu. The
Chinese traveller, Tsuan Tsang, wrote that there were around 300 Sri
Lankan monks in the monastery at the Southern sector of Kanchipuram.
Lakehouse.lk
H2.15
Kusinara - the sacred site of Maha
Parinibbana
Rupa Banduwardena
Every person born to this earth has to face death. Every one
born, he or she has to die sooner or later. Dhammapada (a creation of
the Buddha - an outcome of his wisdom) states “not in the sky not in
the mid ocean nor in a mountain cave is found that place where abiding,
one will not be overcome by death.” The gist of this sacred expression
was experienced by the Blessed One with delight leading to Nibbana the
ultimate bliss putting an end to the Samsaric journey, never to be born
again. The Buddha’s last words uttered immediately prior to his
Parinibbana were - “subject to change are all component things, strive
on with diligence”.
All things are subject to the law of impermanence, was made very
clear and well proved with his passing away. Maha Parinibbana sutta in
Digha Nikaya (DN 16) describes the final days of the great Master and
his leaving this world.
Sakyamuni Gautama Buddha after attaining enlightenment and
realising the gift of eternal truth his concern was the welfare and
happiness of all living beings. He was the embodiment of Meththa and
Karuna love and compassion. He showed both by principle and practice.
He could have led a life of comfort. But he was more concerned
with the welfare of the humans. Wandering from place to place on dusty,
rough roads in North India he served the humanity. He said, “I proclaim
you the Dhamma to get rid of worldly suffering” and his doctrine of
Dhamma was made clear to all of them.
His service is beyond expression - too numerous to mention,
something that no earthly being could do except the Blessed One.
After a successful ministry of 45 years, at the ripe age of 80,
he bade goodbye to the universe.
Maha Parinibbana
Makutabandhana, cremation site of the
Buddha
When Sakyamuni Gautama was getting ready for the final journey
known as ‘Aayu Sanskara’ Ven. Ananda Thera who had a close watch of the
Buddha failed for a moment to extend his invitation to live further.
His failure to do the needful, at the correct time gave the
opportunity to Mara, to fulfill his objective of seeing the end of the
Thathagatha. He compiled with the request of Mara with universal love
and compassion towards all beings for the final deliverance from the
miseries of existence.
Buddha knew his end was near and when he set out his last
journey with Ananda Thera from Vesali, he told Ananda, “This will be
the last time that Thathagatha will see Vesali.” They came to Pava
where Chunda offered alms to the Buddha. That being the last meal, with
great pain he continued his journey to Kusinara in the kingdom of
Mallas.
Ananda was weeping when Buddha consoled him gratefully recalling
his love and devotion to the Buddha and predicted that Ananda will
certainly be an Arahat. He was anxious that Chunda should not be blamed
and praised him of his good Kamma.
His last words to the disciples surrounding him was (Sabbe
Sankara Anicca) mentioned earlier. With these words he passed his last
breath on the robe laid slab of stone between the twin Sal trees.
The body of Thathagatha was taken to Mukthabandana Chetiya the
sacred shrine of the Malla kings and it was cremated with due honour.
The year was 483 BC. Later the relics were distributed among his
followers who enshrined them in stupas. According to Pali chronicles,
Emperor Asoka had opened the original stupas and redistributed the
relics across his empire, to preserve them for future generations.
Indian history reveals that Emperor Asoka well known for his effort to
preserve the sacred places in his battle against the Moghuls is said to
have constructed stupas and pillars in important sacred places.
Kusinara
Kusinagar is the last place
associated with the life of the great master, who had been taken away
from the universe. Buddha himself has mentioned in Mahaparinibbana
Sutta Kusigagar as one of the four sacred sites of worship not to be
missed by a true Buddhist.
Located in the north it had been a
beautiful park originally covered with scenic splendour.
The sacred site at Kusinara stand
today to tell us a most sorrowful and unforgettable incident of the
Buddhist era.
The loss of the magnificent master
to the entire humanity. The sacred temple premises with the Buddha
image is crowded with pilgrims from far and wide. No devotee comes out
without tears in their eyes.
Thanks to Asoka for tracing the
holy spot. Subsequently the State Government of India took pains to
restore the present temple, surrounding the statue to commemorate the
Buddha Jayanthi celebrations to mark the 2500th year of the
Parinibbana.
One can see the reclining Buddha
image lying on its right side. This has been given a new touch, with
more space for the pilgrims to worship the sacred image - the
architectural marvel with much ease.
The statue - 6.1 metres in length
has been carefully done out of one block of red sandstone brought from
Mathura, during the Gupta period. It was discovered in a perished
condition and the scattered pieces had been put together successfully.
The present pilgrims are in the
habit of venerating the statue covering it with robes. This has been
curtailed due to the heavy weight which would lead the statue to sink
down, according to the Bhikkus in charge.
Hence the robes offered to cover
are taken off after a few minutes. The sacred image is said to possess
three poses at different angles, one smiling the other in pain and the
third in the state of Parinibbana.
H2.16
The interaction between
Hellenistic Greece and Buddhism
The interaction
between Hellenistic Greece and Buddhism started
when Alexander the Great conquered Asia Minor and Central Asia in 334
BCE, going as far as the Indus, thus establishing direct contact with
India, the birthplace of Buddhism.
Alexander founded several cities in his new territories in the
areas of the Oxus and Bactria, and Greek settlements further extended
to the Khyber Pass, Gandhara (see Taxila) and the Punjab. These regions
correspond to a unique geographical passageway between the Himalayas
and the Hindu Kush mountains, through which most of the interaction
between India and Central Asia took place, generating intense cultural
exchange and trade.
Following Alexander's death on June 10, 323 BCE, his Diadochi
(generals) founded their own kingdoms in Asia Minor and Central Asia.
General Seleucus set up the Seleucid Kingdom, which extended as far as
India. Later, the Eastern part of the Seleucid Kingdom broke away to
form the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom (3rd–2nd century BCE), followed by the
Indo-Greek Kingdom (2nd–1st century BCE), and later still by the Kushan
Empire (1st–3rd century CE). The interaction of Greek and Buddhist
cultures operated over several centuries until it ended in the 5th
century CE with the invasions of the White Huns, and later the
expansion of Islam.
Some of the Edicts of Asoka describe the efforts made by Asoka
to propagate the Buddhist faith throughout the Hellenistic world, which
at that time formed an uninterrupted continuum from the borders of
India to Greece. The Edicts indicate a clear understanding of the
political organization in Hellenistic territories: the names and
location of the main Greek monarchs of the time are identified, and
they are claimed as recipients of Buddhist proselytism: Antiochus II
Theos of the Seleucid Kingdom (261–246 BCE), Ptolemy II Philadelphos of
Egypt (285–247 B.C.), Antigonus Gonatas of Macedonia (276–239 BCE),
Magas of Cyrene (288–258 BCE), and Alexander of Epirus (272–255 BCE).
Buddhist
missions at the time of Asoka (260–218 BCE)
"The conquest by Dharma has been won here, on the
borders, and even six hundred yojanas (4,000 miles) away, where the
Greek king Antiochos rules, beyond there where the four kings named
Ptolemy, Antigonos, Magas and Alexander rule, likewise in the south
among the Cholas, the Pandyas, and as far as Tamraparni." (Edicts of
Asoka, 13th Rock Edict, S. Dhammika)Furthermore, according to Pali sources, some of Asoka's
emissaries were Greek Buddhist monks, indicating close religious
exchanges between the two cultures:
"When the elder Moggaliputta, the illuminator of the
religion of the Conqueror (Asoka), had brought the third council to an
end (...) he sent forth elders, one here and one there: ... and to
Aparantaka (the "Western countries" corresponding to Gujarat and Sindh)
he sent the Greek (Yona) named Dhammarakkhita." (Mahavamsa XII).It is not clear how much these interactions may have been
influential, but some authors have commented that some level of
syncretism between
Hellenist thought and Buddhism may have
started in Hellenic lands at that time. They have pointed to the
presence of Buddhist communities in the Hellenistic world around that
period, in particular in Alexandria (mentioned by Clement of
Alexandria), and to the pre-Christian monastic order of the Therapeutae
(possibly a deformation of the Pali word "Theravada"), who may have
"almost entirely drawn (its) inspiration from the teaching and
practices of Buddhist ascetism" (Robert Lissen).
Coin of the Hebrew King
Alexander Jannaeus (103-76 BCE), with eight-spoked wheel.
From around 100 BCE, "star within a diadem" symbols, also
alternatively described as "eight-spoked wheels" and possibly infuenced
by the design of the Buddhist Dharma wheel, appear on the coinage of
the Hebrew King Alexander Jannaeus (103-76 BCE). Alexander Jannaeus was
associated with the phil-Hellenic sect of the Sadducees and the
monastic order of the Essenes, themselves precursors of Christianity.
These representations of eight-spoked wheels continued under the reign
of his widow, Queen Alexandra, until the Roman invasion of Judea in 63
BCE.
Buddhist gravestones from the Ptolemaic period have also been
found in Alexandria, decorated with depictions of the Dharma wheel
(Tarn, "The Greeks in Bactria and India"). Commenting on the presence
of Buddhists in Alexandria, some scholars have even pointed out that
“It was later in this very place that some of the most
active centers of
Christianity were established” (Robert Linssen, Zen Living).
A Greco-Buddhist statue,
one of the first representations of the Buddha, 1st-2nd century CE,
Gandhara. Tokyo National Museum.
In the areas west of the Indian subcontinent, neighboring Greek
kingdoms had been in place in Bactria (today's northern Afghanistan)
since the time of the conquests of Alexander the Great around 326 BCE:
first the Seleucids from around 323 BCE, then the Greco-Bactrian
kingdom from around 250 BCE.
The Greco-Bactrian king Demetrius I invaded India in 180 BCE as
far as Pataliputra, establishing an Indo-Greek kingdom that was to last
in various part of northern India until the end of the 1st century BCE.
Buddhism flourished under the Indo-Greek kings, and it has been
suggested that their invasion of India was intended to show their
support for the Mauryan empire, and to protect the Buddhist faith from
the religious persecutions of the Sungas (185–73 BCE).
One of the most famous Indo-Greek kings is Menander (reigned c.
160–135 BCE). He apparently converted to Buddhism and is presented in
the Mahayana tradition as one of the great benefactors of the faith, on
a par with king Asoka or the later Kushan king Kanishka. Menander's
coins bear the mention "Saviour king" in Greek, and "Great king of the
Dharma" in Kharoshthi script. Direct cultural exchange is suggested by
the dialogue of the Milinda Panha between the Greek king Menander and
the monk Nagasena around 160 BCE. Upon his death, the honour of sharing
his remains was claimed by the cities under his rule, and they were
enshrined in stupas, in a parallel with the historic Buddha (Plutarch,
Praec. reip. ger. 28, 6).
The interaction between Greek and Buddhist cultures may have had
some influence on the evolution of Mahayana, as the faith developed its
sophisticated philosophical approach and a man-god treatment of the
Buddha somewhat reminiscent of Hellenic gods. It is also around that
time that the first anthropomorphic representations of the Buddha are
found, often in realistic Greco-Buddhist style: "One might regard the
classical influence as including the general idea of representing a
man-god in this purely human form, which was of course well familiar in
the West, and it is very likely that the example of westerner's
treatment of their gods was indeed an important factor in the
innovation" (Boardman, "The Diffusion of Classical Art in Antiquity").
H2.17
Theravada
Buddhism - A Chronology
John T. Bullitt
This timeline chronicles some of the significant events
and personalities in the evolution of Theravada Buddhism that, in one way or
another, figure prominently in the readings found elsewhere on this website.
This is not meant to be a comprehensive chronology.
Because the sources I used in constructing this timeline (indicated
by {braces} and listed at the end of
this document) often assumed different dates for the Buddha's
nativity, I have occasionally had to interpolate in order to fit events
(particularly the early ones) onto a reasonably consistent timeline.
Nevertheless, this chronology should provide a fairly clear picture of
the relative sequence of events, if not the absolute dates on which they
occurred.
For a general introduction to Theravada Buddhism, please see "What
is Theravada Buddhism?".
BE[1] CE[2]
-80 -624/-560
The Bodhisatta
(Sanskrit: Bodhisattva), or Buddha-to-be, is born in Lumbini (in
present-day Nepal) as Siddhattha (Skt: Siddhartha) Gotama, a prince of
the Sakya clan. {1,2}
-51 -595/-531
The Bodhisatta renounces the
householder life (age 29).
-45 -589/-525
While meditating under the Bo tree
in the forest at Gaya (now Bodhgaya, India) during the full-moon night
of May, the Bodhisatta becomes the Buddha (age 36).
During the
full-moon night of July, the Buddha delivers his first discourse near
Varanasi, introducing the world to the Four Noble Truths and commencing
a 45-year career of teaching the religion he called "Dhamma-vinaya."
1 -544/-480
Parinibbana (Skt: Parinirvana; death
and final release) of the Buddha, at Kusinara (now Kusinagar, India)
(age 80). {1,3}
During the rains retreat following the Buddha's
Parinibbana, the First Council (sangayana) convenes at Rajagaha, India,
during which 500 arahant bhikkhus, led by Ven. Mahakassapa, gather to
recite the entire body of the Buddha's teachings. The recitation of the
Vinaya by Ven. Upali becomes accepted as the Vinaya Pitaka; the
recitation of the Dhamma by Ven. Ananda becomes established as the Sutta
Pitaka. {1,4}
100 -444/-380
100 years after
the Buddha's Parinibbana the Second Council convenes in Vesali to
discuss controversial points of Vinaya. The first schism of the Sangha
occurs, in which the Mahasanghika school parts ways with the
traditionalist Sthaviravadins. At issue is the Mahasanghika's reluctance
to accept the Suttas and the Vinaya as the final authority on the
Buddha's teachings. This schism marks the first beginnings of what would
later evolve into Mahayana Buddhism, which would come to dominate
Buddhism in northern Asia (China, Tibet, Japan, Korea). {1}
294 -250
Third Council is convened by King Asoka
at Pataliputra (India). Disputes on points of doctrine lead to further
schisms, spawning the Sarvastivadin and Vibhajjavadin sects. The
Abhidhamma Pitaka is recited at the Council, along with additional
sections of the Khuddaka Nikaya. The modern Pali Tipitaka is now
essentially complete, although some scholars have suggested that at
least two parts of the extant Canon — the Parivara in the Vinaya, and
the Apadana in the Sutta — may date from a later period. {1, 4}
297 -247
King Asoka sends his son, Ven. Mahinda,
on a mission to bring Buddhism to Sri Lanka; King Devanampiya Tissa of
Sri Lanka is converted {5}. Asoka also sends envoys to Lower Burma and
Central Thailand {1}.
304 -240
Ven. Mahinda establishes the Mahavihara
(Great Monastery) of Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. The Vibhajjavadin
community living there becomes known as the Theravadins. Mahinda
compiles the first of the Tipitaka commentaries, in the Sinhala
language. Mahinda's sister, Ven. Sanghamitta, arrives in Sri Lanka with
a cutting from the original Bo tree, and establishes the
bhikkhuni-sangha in Sri Lanka.{1, 5}
444 -100
Famine and schisms in Sri Lanka point
out the need for a written record of the Tipitaka to preserve the
Buddhist religion. King Vattagamani convenes a Fourth Council, in which
500 reciters and scribes from the Mahavihara write down the Pali
Tipitaka for the first time, on palm leaves. {4, 5, 6}
544 1
Common Era (CE) begins; Year 1 AD.
744 200
Buddhist monastic university at Nalanda,
India flourishes; remains a world center of Buddhist study for over
1,000 years. {1}
ca. 1000 5th c.
Ven. Buddhaghosa collates the
various Sinhala commentaries on the Canon — drawing primarily on the
Maha Atthakatha (Great Commentary) preserved at the Mahavihara — and
translates them into Pali. This makes Sinhala Buddhist scholarship
available for the first time to the entire Theravadan world and marks
the beginning of what will become, in the centuries to follow, a vast
body of post-canonical Pali literature. Buddhaghosa also composes his
encyclopedic, though controversial, meditation manual Visuddhimagga (The
Path of Purification). Vens. Buddhadatta and Dhammapala write additional
commentaries and sub-commentaries. {7}
ca. 1100 600's
Buddhism in India begins a long,
slow decline from which it would never fully recover. {1}
ca. 1100? 1400? 6th c.? 9th c.?
Dhammapala
composes commentaries on parts of the Canon missed by Buddhaghosa (such
as the Udana, Itivuttaka, Theragatha, and Therigatha), along with
extensive sub-commentaries on Buddhaghosa's work. {7}
1594 1050
The bhikkhu and bhikkhuni communities
at Anuradhapura die out following invasions from South India.{1, 5}
1614 1070
Bhikkhus from Pagan arrive in
Polonnaruwa, Sri Lanka to reinstate the obliterated Theravada ordination
line on the island. {5}
1697 1153
Buddhist Council (the 5th by Sri Lankan
reckoning; the 7th by Thai reckoning) in Sri Lanka. {12}
1708 1164
Polonnaruwa destroyed by foreign
invasion. With the guidance of two monks from a forest branch of the
Mahavihara sect — Vens. Mahakassapa and Sariputta — King Parakramabahu
reunites all bhikkhus in Sri Lanka into the Mahavihara sect. {1, 8}
1780 1236
Bhikkhus from Kañcipuram, India arrive
in Sri Lanka to revive the Theravada ordination line. {1}
1823 1279
Last inscriptional evidence of a
Theravada Bhikkhuni nunnery (in Burma). {8}
1831 1287
Pagan looted by Mongol invaders; its
decline begins. {1}
ca. 1900 13th c.
A forest-based Sri Lankan
ordination line arrives in Burma and Thailand. Theravada spreads to
Laos. Thai Theravada monasteries first appear in Cambodia shortly before
the Thais win their independence from the Khmers. {1}
ca. 2000 1400's
Another forest lineage is
imported from Sri Lanka to Ayudhaya, the Thai capital. A new ordination
line is also imported into Burma. {1}
2297 1753
King Kirti Sri Rajasinha obtains
bhikkhus from the Thai court to reinstate the bhikkhu ordination line,
which had died out in Sri Lanka. This is the origin of the Siyam Nikaya.
{8}
2312 1768
Burmese destroy Ayudhaya (Thai
capital).
2321 1777
King Rama I, founder of the current
dynasty in Thailand, obtains copies of the Tipitaka from Sri Lanka and
sponsors a Council to standardize the Thai version of the Tipitaka,
copies of which are then donated to temples throughout the country. {1}
2347 1803
Sri Lankans ordained in the Burmese
city of Amarapura found the Amarapura Nikaya in Sri Lanka to supplement
the Siyam Nikaya, which admitted only brahmans from the Up Country
highlands around Kandy. {9}
2372 1828
Thailand's Prince Mongkut (later King
Rama IV) founds the Dhammayut movement, which would later become the
Dhammayut Sect. {1}
ca. 2400 1800's
Sri Lankan Sangha deteriorates
under pressure from two centuries of European colonial rule (Portuguese,
Dutch, British). {5}
2406 1862
Forest monks headed by Ven. Paññananda
go to Burma for reordination, returning to Sri Lanka the following year
to found the Ramañña Nikaya. {9} First translation of the Dhammapada
into a Western language (German). {2}
2412 1868
Buddhist Council (the 5th by Burmese
reckoning) is held at Mandalay, Burma; Pali Canon is inscribed on 729
marble slabs. {2}
2417 1873
Ven. Mohottivatte Gunananda defeats
Christian missionaries in a public debate, sparking a nationwide revival
of Sri Lankan pride in its Buddhist traditions. {8}
2423 1879
Sir Edwin Arnold publishes his epic
poem Light of Asia, which becomes a best-seller in England and the USA,
stimulating popular Western interest in Buddhism.
2424 1880
Helena Blavatsky and Henry Steel
Olcott, founders of the Theosophical Society, arrive in Sri Lanka from
the USA, embrace Buddhism, and begin a campaign to restore Buddhism on
the island by encouraging the establishment of Buddhist schools. {1}
2425 1881
Pali Text Society is founded in England
by T.W. Rhys Davids; most of the Tipitaka is published in roman script
and, over the next 100 years, in English translation.
2435 1891
Maha Bodhi Society founded in India by
the Sri Lankan lay follower Anagarika Dharmapala, in an effort to
reintroduce Buddhism to India. {1}
2443 1899
First Western Theravada monk (Gordon
Douglas) ordains, in Burma. {2}
ca. 2444 ca. 1900
Ven. Ajaan Mun and Ven. Ajaan
Sao revive the forest meditation tradition in Thailand. {1}
2445 1902
King Rama V of Thailand institutes a
Sangha Act that formally marks the beginnings of the Mahanikaya and
Dhammayut sects. Sangha government, which up to that time had been in
the hands of a lay official appointed by the king, is handed over to the
bhikkhus themselves.
2493 1949
Mahasi Sayadaw becomes head teacher at
a government-sponsored meditation center in Rangoon, Burma. {10}
2498 1954
Burmese government sponsors a Buddhist
Council (the 6th by Burmese and Sri Lankan reckoning) in Rangoon.
2500 1956
Buddha Jayanti Year, commemorating
2,500 years of Buddhism.
2502 1958
Ven. Nyanaponika Thera establishes the
Buddhist Publication Society in Sri Lanka to publish English-language
books on Theravada Buddhism. Sarvodaya Shramadana Movement is founded in
Sri Lanka to bring Buddhist ideals to bear in solving pressing social
problems. Two Germans ordain at the Royal Thai Embassy in London,
becoming the first to take full Theravada ordination in the West. {1, 2}
ca. 2504 1960's [3]
Washington (D.C.) Buddhist
Vihara founded — first Theravada monastic community in the USA. {11; and
Bhavana Society Brochure}
ca. 2514 1970's
Refugees from war in Vietnam,
Cambodia, and Laos settle in USA and Europe, establishing many
tight-knit Buddhist communities in the West. Ven. Taungpulu Sayadaw and
Dr. Rina Sircar, from Burma, establish the Taungpulu Kaba-Aye Monastery
in Northern California, USA. Ven. Ajaan Chah establishes Wat Pah
Nanachat, a forest monastery in Thailand for training Western monks.
Insight Meditation Society, a lay meditation center, is founded in
Massachusetts, USA. Ven. Ajaan Chah travels to England to establish a
small community of monks at the Hamsptead Vihara, which later moves to
Sussex, England, to become Wat Pah Cittaviveka (Chithurst Forest
Monastery).
ca. 2524 1980's
Lay meditation centers grow in
popularity in USA and Europe. First Theravada forest monastery in the
USA (Bhavana Society) is established in West Virginia. Amaravati
Buddhist Monastery established in England by Ven. Ajaan Sumedho (student
of Ven. Ajaan Chah).
ca. 2534 1990's – present
Continued western
expansion of the Theravada Sangha: monasteries from the Thai forest
traditions established in California, USA (Metta Forest Monastery,
founded by Ven. Ajaan Suwat; Abhayagiri Monastery, founded by Ven.
Ajaans Amaro and Pasanno). Buddhism meets cyberspace: online Buddhist
information networks emerge; several editions of the Pali Tipitaka
become available online.
Notes
1. BE = Buddhist Era. Year 1
of the Buddhist Era calendar is the year of the Buddha's Parinibbana
(death and final release), which occurred in the Buddha's eightieth year
(480 BCE according to the "historical" timeline; 544 BCE by tradition).
The actual date of the Buddha's birth is unknown. According to
Buddhist tradition, the Buddha's birth took place in 624 BCE, although
some recent estimates place the Buddha's birth much later — perhaps as
late as 448 BCE {1}. 560 BCE is one commonly accepted date for the
Buddha's birth, and the "historical" date for that event that I adopt
here.
Events in the timeline prior to -250 CE are shown with two
CE dates: the date based on the "traditional" nativity of 624 BCE,
followed by the date based on the "historical" date of 560 BCE. After
-250 CE the "historical" date is dropped, since these dates are more
appropriate only in discussions of earlier events.
To calculate
the CE date corresponding to an event in the Buddhist traditional
calendar, subtract 544 years from the BE date. The BE dates of
well-documented historical events (particularly those in the twentieth
century) may be off by one year, since the CE and BE calendars start
their years on different months (January and May, respectively).
2.
CE = Common Era. Year 1 of the Common Era
corresponds with the year 1 AD (Anno Domini) in the Christian calendar.
-1 CE (or 1 BCE - "Before the Common Era") corresponds with the year 1
BC ("Before Christ"). By convention there is no year zero; the day after
31 December 1 BCE is 1 January 1 CE.
3. Events of the last few decades are still too
recent to claim any historical significance.
Sources
{1} The Buddhist
Religion: A Historical Introduction (fourth edition) by R.H. Robinson &
W.L. Johnson (Belmont, California: Wadsworth, 1996)
{2} The Buddha's
Way by H. Saddhatissa (London: Allen & Unwin, 1971)
{3} Pali
Literature and Language by Wilhelm Geiger (New Delhi: Oriental Books,
1978)
{4} Beginnings:
the Pali Suttas by Samanera Bodhesako (Kandy: Buddhist Publication
Society, 1984)
{5} Buddhism in
Sri Lanka by H.R. Perera (Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 1966)
{6} The Path of
Purification (Visuddhimagga) (Introduction) by Ven. Bhikkhu Ñanamoli
(Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 1975)
{7} Indian
Buddhism (second edition) by A.K. Warder (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass,
1980)
{8} Theravada
Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo by
Richard Gombrich (London and New York: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1988)
{9} The Forest
Monks of Sri Lanka: An Anthropological and Historical Study by Michael
Carrithers (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1983)
{10} The Progress
of Insight by Mahasi Sayadaw (Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 1994)
{11} World
Buddhist Directory by The Buddhist Information Centre (Colombo, Sri
Lanka: Buddhist Information Centre, 1984)
{12} Buddhism in
Thailand: Its Past and Its Present by Karuna Kusalasaya (Kandy, Sri
Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society, 2005), See note 3.
H2.18
Heritage forgotten: Gandhara
civilization site fading away
The Express Tribune, Jan 6, 2011
SWAT,
Pakistan
After surviving over
2,000 years, government apathy may lead to the stupa’s disappearance.
Photo: Fazal Khaliq
The ancient seat of Gandhara civilization in Swat that was vandalized
by religious extremists is crumbling due to the neglect of the
authorities. The valley, once a popular tourist destination and seat of
learning through the ages, was turned into a hotbed of violence when
Taliban captured the valley in 2006 and started propagating orthodox
version of Sharia through illegal FM radio station.
The militants defaced Buddhist statues, monasteries and rock
carvings. On October 8, 2007, Fazlullah’s militants defaced a 23-foot
high, 7th century seated Buddha, carved in a rock in the lap of a
mountain in Jehandabad village. It was the rarest piece of rock art in
the region after the Buddhist statues in Bamiyan, Afghanistan that were
destroyed by the Taliban in March 2001, says an official of the Swat
Museum in Saidu Sharif.
However, the Taliban are not the only ones guilty of wrecking
such archaeological treasures; the local people have also destroyed
archaeological sites to extract stones and bricks for use in the
construction of their houses. In some areas, treasure-hunters pillage
these sites in the hope of finding valuables and striking a fortune.
Lying in the lap of calm and serene Jambil Valley on one side and the
Marghazar stream on the other, Batkara Stupa is one of the most
important and oldest Buddhist seats of learning in Swat Valley.
According to the Archaeology and Museums Department of Pakistan,
it was the Buddhist monastery of Ta-Lo, visited by Chinese Buddhist
pilgrims during the 5th and 7th centuries. It lies at the eastern end
of the ancient capital known as ‘Udyana’ (garden) in the Hindu
scriptures of Chich-Li (present day Mingora). The main stupa stands in
the middle, around it, crowded stupas, veharas and columns, on the
northern side stands a great building and further to the north and
west the inhabited area. The stupa underwent five
reconstructions, each new one encasing the last from the 3rd century
till the 10th century. The other monuments around have been accordingly
co-related to the five building periods.
During the reign of Ashoka, Buddhism thrived in the Swat valley
and spread to Central Asia and China from the 1st century BC to 4th
century AD. Buddhism left its mark in the form of stupas, monasteries,
art, coins, pottery and other artifacts.
Sadly, the site, which was once a prime tourist spot especially
for Buddhists from across the world, and earned huge foreign exchange,
has been deserted since violence erupted in the valley in 2006.
Site in-charge and archaeologist Sanaullah gave a glimpse into
the site’s history, “There was an earth-mound here where farmers used
to thresh their crops. When locals found some coins while digging, an
Italian mission led by archaeologist Domenico Faccenna managed to
excavate this site in 1956, that continued till 1962, and after
clarifying the various steps of the construction, the mission
established that the stupa was monumentalised by the addition of
Hellenistic architectural decorations during the 2nd century BC,
suggesting a direct involvement of the Indo-Greek rulers of
north-western India in the development of Greco-Buddhist architecture.”
Before the militancy, he added, “some 20 to 25 groups of foreign
delegates would visit the site; the majority of them were Buddhists.
This was an important worship site for them and is particularly
suitable for meditation due to its peaceful and serene location.”
Renowned historian Fazal Rabi Rahi, commented on the importance
of the ancient sites, told the Express Tribune, “If such historical
heritages existed in a developed country, they would really take great
advantage of them. In European countries historical buildings and
monuments are visited by thousands of tourists annually and generate a
lot of income.”
Criticizing the role of the authorities concerned, Rahi said,
“Though, thousands of Buddhist historical sites representing the
Gandhara civilization exist throughout the Swat valley and can
potentially earn millions in foreign currency, neither our government
nor the Archaeology Department seem concerned about this and our
precious heritage is in a state of decay due to their neglect.”
Hamayun Firas, a social activist and resident of Batkara
lamented on the present situation of the stupa, saying that 30 years
ago, the stupa was in a very good condition, its architecture was
marvelous and the colours of every decoration and painting were
visible, but if you visit it today, no sign of the sublime architecture
is visible, even the statues carved into the walls have been broken and
lost by the neglect of the concerned department.
“The other things which you will always see in these historical
sites are stray dogs and drugs addicts.”
At Batkara, where 9,484 statues and 107 coins were discovered
during excavation, there was a decorated stupa with stone and plaster
carvings of the life of Buddha, painted, gilded and topped by
umbrellas, today it presents a deserted wasteland due to neglect from
the archaeology department and the local authorities.
The archaeology department officials were not willing to comment
on the condition of the Batkara site, claiming they are not allowed to
speak to the media by their higher authorities. Despite repeated
attempts, the higher authorities would not respond.
H2.19
Buddhism's
'Dead Sea Scrolls' for sale to Norway
Saved
from Afghanistan by top collector, the manuscripts pose an ethical
problem
Martin Bailey
LONDON, UK -Thousands
of ancient manuscripts smuggled out of Afghanistan are now likely to be
sold. Known as 'Buddhism's Dead Sea Scrolls', they belong to Martin
Schøyen, a Norwegian businessman who is regarded as the world's
greatest 20th-century collector of manuscripts. His library includes
important examples from virtually every major civilisation around the
world. Mr. Schøyen, aged 60, now wishes to sell his entire
collection to a public institution for £70 million in order to
raise money for his human rights and development aid charity.
Mystery surrounds the origin of Mr
Schøyen's Buddhist manuscripts, but Professor Jens Braarvig of
the University of Oslo, who is heading the scholarly publication
programme, believes that the overwhelming majority come from the
Bamiyan area. 'Reports suggest they were found by local people taking
refuge from the Taliban forces in a deep cave in the cliffside, within
a few kilometres of the two giant Buddhas,' he told The Art Newspaper.
Professor Braarvig says that this cache of manuscripts, although
obviously very different, is of 'comparable importance' to the Buddha
statues, which were destroyed by the Taliban last year.
It was in 1996 that the first group of manuscripts was discovered. The
finders set off towards Pakistan, and after being chased by the Taliban
in the Hindu Kush they managed to cross the Khyber Pass, eventually
reaching Islamabad. There the manuscripts passed through dealers before
being acquired by London specialist Sam Fogg, who sold the 108
fragments to Mr. Schøyen. This was followed by further batches,
which were considerably larger and usually included hundreds of folios
and the occasional complete manuscript. Altogether around 15 separate
consignments of Bamiyan material have been acquired by Mr.
Schøyen.
Latest
arrival
The most recent batch of manuscripts reached Europe in July, and again
passed through Sam Fogg to the Schøyen Collection. These texts
are believed to have been purchased by a middleman in Bamiyan earlier
in the year, but they are all small fragments and this has raised new
concerns. Since the fall of the Taliban, talismans have been produced
for sale in Bamiyan which incorporate a fragment of ancient Buddhist
text. This new practice has not only pushed up market prices for
manuscripts, but it also appears that folios are now sometimes cut up
into small pieces in order to maximise profits for the seller.
Altogether the Schøyen Library now has eight complete Buddhist
manuscripts, over 5,000 folios and sizable fragments from 1,400
different manuscripts, plus more than 8,000 small fragments. These are
on palm leaf, birch bark or vellum, and some seem to have been damaged
in antiquity. The majority of the texts are in Sanskrit, and most
probably originated in India and were brought to Bamiyan by pilgrims.
They include many previously unknown Buddhist texts, as well as some of
the oldest surviving scriptures of Mahayana Buddhism. The earliest
manuscripts have been dated to around 100 AD, and hence the comparison
with the Jewish scrolls found near the Dead Sea.
Professor Braarvig believes that nearly all of Mr Schøyen's
Buddhist material comes from a monastic library near Bamiyan. This may
well have been the monastery of Mahasanghika, whose existence was
recorded by a Chinese traveller in around 633 AD. The texts come from a
600-year period (from around 100 to 700 AD) and much of the collection
are in single folios, many of them damaged. It has therefore been
suggested that the manuscript cache could have comprised damaged sheets
which were recopied for the main library. 'When folios were copied, the
discarded ones may well have been ritually buried in the cave,'
suggests Professor Richard Salomon, of the University of Washington,
Seattle.
Controversy
Mr Schøyen has recently indicated that he wishes to sell his
entire collection of 12,500 world manuscripts, ideally to the Norwegian
State, for the National Library. The bulk of the Schøyen Library
does not pose any special difficulties, but the fact that the Buddhist
manuscripts were smuggled out of Afghanistan has sparked off an
impassioned debate in Norway.
In a statement, the Schøyen Library points out that the Buddhist
manuscripts are the only ones that do not come from old collections,
'but were acquired to prevent destruction, after requests from
Buddhists and scholars. The statement goes on to address the question
of whether these manuscripts should be returned to Afghanistan, after
they have been published, and if peace, order, religious tolerance and
safe conditions have been established in that country. But after
analysing the history of Afghanistan, the Schøyen Library
concludes that it is 'not the right and safe home for these manuscripts
in the future.'
Bendik Rugaas, director of Norway's National Library, has already
welcomed Mr. Schøyen's proposal to sell his entire collection to
the State. But even if the money is raised, and the sale goes ahead,
this does not resolve the question of what should eventually happen to
the Buddhist material. Although Mr Rugaas would be happy for the
manuscripts to remain in Oslo, John Herstad, director of the National
Archives, is among those who support the return of the manuscripts to
Afghanistan when conditions are appropriate.
Ethics
The story of the Buddhist manuscripts raises difficult issues.
Professor Braarvig points out that the Bamiyan cave has not been
examined by archaeologists. ?From a scientific point of view the fact
that the exact find-spot is unknown and that proper excavations have
not been carried out is deplorable, since the manuscripts are shorn of
context,? he explained. Instead, it has been left to local looters to
take the material, keeping the source of their treasure a secret.
But what would have happened if those fleeing the Taliban and seeking
refuge in the cave had not been able to sell their find? Had the
manuscripts not had a financial value, the fragile items might simply
have been discarded or allowed to disintegrate. There was no Afghan
government authority which could have stepped in to save the find. The
Kabul Museum had already suffered serious damage and looting during the
civil war, although this was to soon to be overshadowed by the
deliberate destruction which took place under the Taliban early last
year.
When Mr. Schøyen began to buy the Buddhist manuscripts, he was
purchasing items which had been smuggled (although no legal offence was
being committed by dealers or collectors outside Afghanistan). In
retrospect, following the Taliban's destruction of the giant Buddhas,
Mr. Schøyen's action may well be applauded, but at the time
Unesco was opposing the acquisition of illegally exported antiquities.
However, with the defeat of the Taliban, the situation is rather
different and the purchase of manuscripts which have been illegally
exported from Afghanistan this year is much more questionable.
The Schøyen case is unusual, because a single collector appears
to have acquired the bulk of the material from a major find, despite
the fact that it was separated into numerous separate consignments. It
would obviously have been very unfortunate if the folios and fragments
had been dispersed to dozens of private collectors, making it virtually
impossible for scholars to study the material as a coherent group.
One fact, however, is indisputable, and that is that Schøyen has
been generous in allowing scholarly access to the material and
encouraging its prompt publication. This is now well under way: the
first volume on the Buddhist manuscripts was published in Oslo by
Hermes in 2000 and the second volume will be out later this month.
Eight further volumes are scheduled within the next few years.
And as for the future, Professor Braarvig hopes that ownership of the
Buddhist manuscripts will be very carefully considered. He personally
believes that the Norwegian State should consider giving them back to
Afghanistan, but only after conditions there are entirely suitable, and
this could be many years away. Professor Braarvig's overriding concern
is that 'Buddhism's Dead Sea Scrolls' must be accessible, both to
scholars and the public.
03 11 2004 - The Art Newspaper
H2.20
In
Afghanistan, 900-foot Sleeping Buddha eludes archaeologists
But researchers are finding and preserving
other ancient riches.
International
News Network, August 7, 2007
BAMIYAN, AFGHANISTAN
- After the Taliban fell, France sent Zemaryalai Tarzi to this Afghan
valley on a quest bordering on the mythological. His goal: to find
Sleeping Buddha, the reclining sculpture that, at 900 feet long, would
be nearly 10 times the size of the Buddhas destroyed by the Taliban in
2001.
Investigating Gholghola ruins: Dr. Tarzi's team of archeologists is
planning to begin small test excavations near the citadel ruins to
learn more about the Islamic Gorid Empire.
Mark Sapenfield - staff
He brought the ultimate treasure map – the journal of a 7th-
century Chinese pilgrim who recorded every major monument in
painstaking detail.
But six years later, there's no Sleeping Buddha. When it comes
to this prize, the journal is frustratingly vague. And, Dr. Tarzi
freely acknowledges, he has been otherwise occupied as he and other
archaeologists have found, preserved, and worked to understand
Afghanistan's other ancient riches, starting right here in Bamiyan.
What he has found are the remnants of the culture that built the
Buddhas – one of the most lavish and powerful kingdoms of ancient
Central Asia.
Recently Tarzi's colleague, archaeologist Mickaël
Rakotozonia, stood in a steady drizzle, surrounded by mud-brick houses,
and gestured to two ancient towers almost lost amid the jigsaw of
earthen walls here.
Between these two towers, he speculated, might have been a gate
into the Kingdom City of Bamiyan, home to the creators of the two stone
Buddhas carved from a nearby cliff some 1,500 years ago and destroyed
by the Taliban.
But the Buddhas are only the most obvious example of this
country's ancient riches.
"My new discoveries have put old discoveries in the background,"
says Tarzi.
He and Mr. Rakotozonia will continue searching for the
Buddhist's Kingdom City this summer and autumn and the team will
perhaps also begin excavating test pits near Shar-e Gholghola, the
citadel capital of the Ghorid Empire, which followed the Buddhists.
The white hill city, encrusted with the ruins of centuries past,
was destroyed in the 13th century when Genghis Khan conquered Bamiyan.
According to legend, he was so furious that his son was killed in the
siege that he killed even the mice of the city, leading to the name
Shar-e Gholghola, which means the City of Screams.
To the north, archaeologists are excavating the city of Balkh,
supposed birthplace of the prophet Zoroaster and location of
Alexander's marriage to Roxana in 327 BC.
But archaeology in Afghanistan makes for some peculiar working
conditions. There are still mines on Shar-e Gholghola from 20 years of
war. The same is true of the Red City, a three-tiered, 3rd century BC
palace complex hewn from red stone and clinging to a cliff 1,500 feet
above the floor of the Bamiyan Valley.
Sayed Nasir Modaber of Bamiyan's Department of Monuments says
demining projects should begin this month.
Also conspiring against them is open warfare in much of the
country and – perhaps worse – a decades-old network of smuggling that
is systematically looting the relics of Afghanistan's past, sometimes
to finance warlords and insurgents.
The statues in Afghanistan are gone, but archeologists
continue to explore the Bamiyan monasteries.
Mark Sappenfield - staff
"If we add up the values of numerous objects looted and
illegally sold these past two decades, it amounts to several billion
dollars worth of art objects belonging and constituting Afghanistan's
wealth and national heritage," said Abdul Wasey Feroozi of
Afghanistan's Institute of Archaeology at a 2004 seminar.
More unusual, still, is the practice of refilling every site
with dirt after an excavation is finished.
Indeed, when Rakotozonia stood beneath the two ancient towers of
what could be the Kingdom City, there was no hint that he stood on last
year's work.
He helped excavate this patch of ground last year, finding what
appeared to be a warehouse for the Buddhist kingdom that ruled this
valley from the 3rd to the 10th centuries AD. Now, it's as flat as a
courtyard.
It is better than the alternative, though. Mir Zaka has become
synonymous with the perils facing Afghan archaeology. During the civil
war of the early 1990s, the treasure of the 5th century BC Greek fort
was sold to finance warlords.
Mohammad Rasuli, director of the Institute of Archaeology in
Kabul, remembers visiting the site, disguised as a businessman, and
seeing bags of historical coins so heavy that two men needed to lift
them. Ornaments, statuary, and stamps were packed away in containers
and protected not only by men with machine guns, but also with
antiaircraft guns.
In all, he estimates, some 4.5 tons of archaeological artifacts
were lost, some of them even popping up in local markets. But even from
such calamity, Mr. Rasuli draws optimism: "Afghanistan has hope that we
have lots of Mir Zakas."
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1~
End of Aloka
History Pg 2 ~
3
The
Roots of Violence
Wealth without
work,
Pleasure without conscience,
Knowledge without character,
Commerce without morality,
Science without humanity,
Worship without sacrifice,
Politics without principles.
Mohandas K. Gandhi
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